Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
58 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Education reflected ____ life, which was predominantly a military state
Maintenance of military strength was the most important goal of the government, the welfare of the individual came second to the welfare of the state, life was regimented by the state, and severe limits were placed on individual freedoms Creative or strictly intellectual pursuits were discouraged The aim of the educational system, which began at age 7 for boys, was to inculcate patriotism and the ideal of the sacrifice of the individual to the state, as well as to develop and train physically fit and courageous warriors |
Spartan focus of education -Greek
|
|
|
Was a democracy that held the individual in the highest regard
There was no compulsory education in ___, except for 2 years beginning at age 18 when military training was required of all men. Athenian schools were private and restricted to those who could afford the fees “The old education,” consisted of sending boys ages 7 to 14 to several schools: the didascaleum or music school; the home building of the grammatisties for the study of reading, writing, and arithmetic; and the palestra for physical education Formal education stopped after age 14, although some youth continued their education at the gymnasia, where they received more demanding physical training, somewhat military in nature From ages 18 to 20, a program involving military, public, and religious service was required of all young men; on completion of this service, full citizenship was granted The aim of educating men in the Athenian state was to prepare a cultivated, well-mannered, physically fit, and agile individual ready for the participation in Athenian citizenship |
Focus of education in Athens:
|
|
|
Received instruction only in the home, although some archaeological evidence suggests girls going to school, as well as reading, writing, and engaging in sports
|
women in Greece
|
|
|
academy for older aristocratic boys/young men; social center of male society; curriculum of music, literature, religion physical training and citizenship
|
gymnasium
|
|
|
slave responsible for care, education of aristocratic boy, beginning at age 8, origin of term pedagogy
|
pedagogue
|
|
|
Rhetoric, political science, geometry, astronomy (genesis of liberal arts)
Emphasized teacher/student relationship to foster learning |
sophists
|
|
|
Accepted no fees, education should be free
Disagreed with the use of knowledge merely to achieve success or gain power, but believed that knowledge was ethically and morally important to all men Knowledge was a virtue that was both eternal and universal The purpose of education was not to perfect the art of rhetoric but to develop in the individual his inherent knowledge and to perfect the ability to reason. Believed that education and society were inextricably related: society was only as good as its schools. If education was successful in producing good citizens, then society would be strong and good |
Socrates
|
|
|
develop ability to reason through dialogical inquiry enabling students to find “the truth” for themselves
o Socrates would first demolish false or shake opinions or assumptions held by the student while disclaiming any knowledge himself. Then, through a questioning process based on the student’s experiences and analyzing the consequences of responses, he led the student to a better understanding of the problem. Finally, he brought the student to a discovery of general ideas or concepts that could be applied to new problems |
socratic method
|
|
|
As laid out in The Republic, believed that the state should operate the educational system. The aim of the school was to discover and develop the abilities of the individual, to aid the individual in discovering the knowledge of truth that is within each of us, and to prepare the individual for his or her role in society.
Games and sports, as well as music, were important not for the purpose of entertainment, but to improve the soul and achieve moral excellence Although Plato advocated universal education, he presumed that few possessed the capacity to reach its final stages Those who passed the successive selection tests and reached the highest levels of wisdom and devotion to the state were to rule the state – the philosopher was to be king Thus, education is the means by which one arrives at the ultimate good Sought truth, goodness through the intellect (origin or idealism); ALL received traditional classic education to 18; the cream of the crop designated as philosopher-kings apprenticed to balance wisdom, power “The Father of Idealism |
Plato
|
|
|
Sought truth in real world through observation, experimentation (origin of realism)
Is credited with the introduction of the scientific method of inquiry Believed in the importance of education to the functioning of society and that education should be provided by the state; unlike Plato, he did no believe in educating girls. The aim of education, he felt, is the achievement of the highest possible happiness of the individual by the development of the intellect through the cultivating of habits and the specific use of inductive and deductive reasoning An additional aim is to produce the good person and good citizen Believed there was a “core” of knowledge which included reading, writing, music, and physical education |
Aristotle
|
|
|
The formal Roman school system that evolved (and that influenced education throughout Europe for centuries) was composed of the elementary school, known as the lundus, and the secondary school or grammar school
Girls could attend the lundus, but usually that was as far as their education extended Grammar schools were attended by upper class boys ages 12 to 16 years who learned grammar and literature From ages 16 to 20, boys attended the school of rhetoric, where they were instructed in grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy Philosophy, law, mathematics, medicine, architecture, and rhetoric were the principal subjects taught in the universities Education more practical Elementary schools: 7 – 12 years old Secondary: older upper class boys studied seven Roman liberal arts o Trivium: grammar, rhetoric, logic o Quadrivium: astronomy, music, geometry, arithmetic |
the romans
|
|
|
attended to readiness, motivation, opposed corporal punishment, believed that teacher should adopt parental role (modern view of teacher); advocated group instruction in public schools (as opposed in private teaching)
o Believed education should be concerned with a person’s whole intellectual and moral nature, and should have as its goal the production of the effective moral man in practical life o Recommended a broad literary education that included music, astronomy, geometry, and philosophy o Education was to take place in the schools, preferably the public schools, not at home with private tutors o Public (i.e., group) education provided the opportunity for emulation, friendships, and learning for the successes and failures of others o Supported holidays because “relaxation brings greater energy to stud, and also games because it is the nature of young things to play” o Believed in the importance of early training to child development o Maintained that children should not be introduced to specific subject matter until they are mature enough to master it o Emphasized the importance of recognizing individual differences when prescribing the curriculum |
Marcus Fabius Quinilan
|
|
|
Roman Catholic Church became the dominant force in society and education
At the secondary level, monastic schools, originally established to train the clergy, educated boys in the established disciplines of the Roman schools o One important function of the monastic schools was the preserving and coping manuscripts Education initially based on the Bible (for training church leaders), became more institutionalized (internal, external monastic schools) Monasteries (for training clergy) became centers for learning; intellectually vibrant, artistically rich force that transformed western civilization, set stage for current universities Guilds, collegia, universities Apprenticeship – learning model among craftsmen (later joined trade guilds); girls apprenticed to serve homes |
the middle ages
|
|
|
Most important scholar and philosopher of the Middle Ages
o He believed that human beings possess both a spiritual nature (the soul) and a physical nature (the body) o Man is a rational being and that through the deductive process of rational analysis man can arrive at truth o Reason and faith are complementary sources of truth o Curriculum is to contain both theology and the liberal arts |
St. THomas Aquinas
|
|
|
as a holy Roman Emperor (circa 800 A.D.) made education foundation of the Empire; attracted scholars to his palace school to train his staff in language arts. Reasoning and counting (skills needed for ruling the Empire); development of standardized letters – led to Roman alphabet
|
Charles the great
|
|
|
Dominant philosophy was humanism
Humanism: viewed human nature as its subject. It stressed the dignity of the individual, free will, and the value of the human spirit and all nature (scripture à reasoning) Change in focus from religion to improving the human condition, gradual change from Latin/Greek to the vernacular (local language, mass education) Emphasis on dignity of the individual, free will, value of all nature (transition to modern times); more women spoke out (more gender equality in education) Growth of nationalism led to emphasis on new art, literature (not simply glorifying he old) More public education than private tutors, teachers attained their own students Advocated graded studies designed to produce civic responsibility The goal was to produce well-rounded, liberally educated courtiers for positions as statesmen, diplomats, or scholars |
The Renaissance
|
|
|
Argued for earl childhood education
o Asserted that the needs and interests of the student take precedence in the selection of materials and methods, not those of the church or the medieval guilds o Expresses a belief in the potential of the individual to improve himself as well as the importance of education to the development of the intellect and morality |
Erasmus
|
|
|
Rejected the practice of the Scripture being read almost exclusively by the priests and interpreted to the people by them because most of them were illiterate
Believed that every individual was responsible for his or her salvation, a salvation that came through faith, not works, and that could best be obtained by prayer and reading and studying the Scriptures; however, in order to do this, it was necessary that every child be provided a free and compulsory elementary education Luther believed education should be supported by the state, and that the state should have the authority and responsibility to control the curriculum, the textbooks, and the instruction Luther stressed the spiritual, economic, and political benefits of education Secondary schools, designed primarily as preparatory schools for the clergy; taught Hebrew as well as the classical languages, rhetoric, dialectic, history, mathematics, science, music, and gymnastics. A university education, who purpose was seen as providing training for higher service in government or the Church, was available only to those young men who demonstrated exceptional intellectual abilities |
The reformation
|
|
|
Stressed the necessity of a universal, compulsory, state-supported education that would not only enable all individuals to read the Bible themselves and thereby attain salvation, but would profit the state through the contributions of an orderly and productive citizenry
o Supported two-track educational system consisting of common schools for the masses and secondary schools teaching the classical, humanist curriculum for the preparation of the leaders of church and state o Emphasis on the importance of education to the religious, social, and economic welfare of the individual and the state |
John Calvin
|
|
|
Primary or elementary schools that offered instruction in the mother tongue or “vernacular”
o Provided a basic curriculum of reading, writing, mathematics, and religion o Served as the model for the elementary schools established in colonial America |
Vernacular school
|
|
|
Champion of mass education, tax-supported schools
|
The reformation-Vernacular school
|
|
|
Questioned dogma, investigating laws of reason
Age of reason Development of national government, national systems of education, education seen as agent for democracy Scientific method (Newton) led to systematization of teaching, efforts to understand the learning process; experience emphasized as the basis for learning Development of ideas about freedom, individual rights, equity, emphasis on public education Max advancement opportunity for all; expanded opportunities for women, kindergarten, and special education |
The 18th Century Enlightenment
|
|
|
Proponent of term sense realism, which is the belief that learning must come via the senses through observational experience
o Education must allow children to observe for themselves and experience by doing o Attempted to identify the developmental stages of children and is said to be the first educator to propose a theory of child growth and development o Proposed that teaching should be straightforward and simple and proceed from concrete examples to abstract ideas, that it deal with things before symbols, and that is have practical application; 1st to use picture in text o Believed in a general learning, paideia, which should be possessed by all educated persons o Perhaps the first educator to propose universal public education |
John Amos Comenius
|
|
|
Taught the tabula rasa a concept of the human mind, which says that we come into the world with our minds a blank slate
o Recommended a curriculum that included, beyond the “three Rs,” history, geography, ethics, philosophy, science and conversational foreign languages o Believed the goal of education was to create the moral, practical individual who could participate effectively in the governing process o Proposed that there were inherent laws of nature and that associated with these natural laws man had certain natural rights. These natural rights came from God or nature, no from rulers or governments; among these rights were life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness o Environment, not innate characteristics, determines student outcomes (“nature vs. nurture” debate) |
John Locke
|
|
|
Associated with an educational movement called naturalism
o “Father of modern child psychology” o Believed in stages of children’s growth and development and in the educational necessity of adapting instruction to the various stages o Learn by senses through direct experience and was not to be punished, education was to progress as he was ready and his interests motivated him and is to be concerned with his physical growth and health o Naturalistic education; growth without undue interference; nurture respect, kindness; promote spontaneity, inquisitiveness of child o Influenced John Dewey (progressivism) led to many modern educational practices (e.g. family-like classrooms, conflict resolution programs, sensory learning) o Child-centered learning (e.g. capitalize on student interests, collaborative teacher/student learning, schooling as prep for life); believed in goodness of human nature |
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
|
|
|
Believed in the natural goodness of human nature and the corrupting influence of society
o Recognized the importance of human emotions in the learning process o Believed that the child be given feelings of self-respect and emotional security; it was also important that the teacher treat students with love o Instruction must begin with the concrete and proceed to the abstract. Materials should be presented slowly, in developmental order from simple to complex, from known to unknown. The object lesson centers on concrete materials within the child’s experience, involves discussion and oral presentation and replaces rote learning |
Johann Pestalozzi
|
|
|
Believed that the aim of education should be the development of moral character
o His pedagogical theory included three key concepts: interest, application and correlation o Instruction can be successful only if it arouses interest; interests are derived from both nature and society; thus the curriculum should include both the natural and social sciences o All new material presented to the child is interpreted in terms of past experiences by the process of apperception; ideas are reinforced and organized in the mid by the process of correlation |
Johann Herbart
|
|
|
Preparation – preparing the student to receive the new material by arousing interest or recalling past material or experiences
Presentation – presenting the new material Association – helping students see the relationship between old and new ideas Generalization – formulating general ideas or principles Application – applying the ideas or principles to new situations |
The five steps in the Herbartian methodology
|
|
|
Is known for the establishment of the first kindergarten and for providing the theoretical basis for early childhood education
o Was most concerned with activity than Pestalozzi, but less concerned with observation o The primary aim of the school should be self-development through self-expression, which would take place through games, singing, or any number of creative and spontaneous activities that were to be part of an activity curriculum o Viewed the classroom as a miniature society in which children learned social cooperation o Encouraged women to pursue careers in education |
Friedrich Froebel
|
|
|
Italian physician who developed instructional models for young children and children with special needs
o Advocated individualized education to recognize children’s uniqueness o Children should not be treated like mini-adults o Children should be the center of learning, teacher should be keen observer, planner o Emphasized freedom within a prepared learning environment |
Maria Montessouri
|
|
|
The institutions of secular government, including education, were closely aligned with the dominant religious group
Education was necessary for religious instruction and salvation as well as for economic self-reliance and the exercise of citizenship by an educated laity There was a need to ensure the ability of children “to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of this country” The founding of Harvard College in 1636 was also based on religious motives: to ensure that there would be an educated ministry for the colony |
Puritan religious influence in the New England Colonies
|
|
|
Basic lessons written on a sheet of parchment, placed on a wooden board and covered with a thin sheath of cow’s horn for protection
The board was shaped like a paddle and had a handle with a hole in it so it could be strung around the child’s neck |
hornbooks
|
|
|
Pennsylvania (the Quakers) believed that all people were created equal under God led not only to the education of both sexes and to free admission of the poor, but also to the education of blacks and Native Americans
|
Implications of expanded religious diversity in the Middle Colonies
|
|
|
Founder of the Hartford Female Seminary and the Western Institute for Women
Set forth a plan for a nationwide system of teacher training seminaries |
Catherine Beecher
|
|
|
Sought cultural independence
Believed the primary purpose of eduation should be the inculcation of patriotism, and that what was needed was truly American education rid of European influence Prepared a number of spelling, grammar, and reading books to replace the English texts then in use; an American version of the Bible; and what became to world-famous American Dictionary of the English Language Published the Elementary Spelling Book which included both a federal catechism with political and patriotic content, and a moral catechism whose content was related to respect for honest work and property rights, the value of money, the virtues of industry and thrift, the danger of drink, and contentment with one’s economic status Supported the concept of free schools in which all American children could learn the necessary patriotic and moral precepts He also supported the education of women, because they would be the mothers of future citizens and the teachers of youth |
Noah Webster’s Speller
|
|
|
One paid teacher instructed hundreds of pupils through the use of student teachers or monitors who were chosen for their academic abilities
Was concerned with teaching only the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic Was first opened in New York City in 1806 and the system spread rapidly throughout the states Was attractive not only because it provided an inexpensive system for education poor children, but because submission to the system was supposed to instill the virtues of orderliness, obedience, and industriousness Declined after time as it appeared to be suited only for large cities with large numbers of students rather than small towns and rural areas |
Joseph Lancaster’s monitorial system of education:
|
|
|
“Father of American Education:
Led a campaign to organize the schools in Massachusetts into a state system and to establish a state board of education Campaigned vigorously to increase public support for education and public awareness of the problem facing education in the form of dilapidated, unsanitary facilities and substandard materials; also critical of the status of the teaching profession and their training Fought for the professional training and establish three normal schools (teacher training institutions Asserted that education was the right of every child and that it was the state’s responsibility to ensure that every child was provided an education Believed that women were better teachers than men for the common schools |
Horace Mann and common schools
|
|
|
A committee was formed in an effort to standardize the curriculum
The committee was chaired by Charles Elliot, the president of Harvard University The committee recommended an early introduction to the basic subjects and uniform subject matter and instruction for both college-bound and terminal students, with few electives Claimed that he recommended subjects would be used profitably by both college-bound and terminal students because they trained the powers of observation, memory, expression, and reasoning Recommended that each course meet four or five times weekly for 1 year, for which the student would receive a Carnegie unit Commission on the Reogranization of Secondary education (CRSE) represented elementary and secondary schools The seven cardinal principles were identified for the high school curriculum o Health o Command of fundamental academic skills o Worthy home membership o Vocational preparation o Citizenship Worthwhile use of leisure time o Ethical character The curriculum was seen as the instrument through which the students would achieve their goals By the mid 1920s there were four basic patterns of curricular organization o College preparatory program, which included courses in Englis language and literature, foreign languages, mathematics, the natural and physical sciences, and history and social sciences o The commercial or business programs, which offered courses in bookkepping, shorthand, and typing o The industrial, vocational, home economics, and agricultural programs o A modified academic program for students who planned to terminate their formal education on high school completion |
NEA Committee of Ten/Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education
|
|
|
Health
o Command of fundamental academic skills o Worthy home membership o Vocational preparation o Citizenship o Worthwhile use of leisure time o Ethical character |
The seven cardinal principles were identified for the high school curriculum
|
|
|
Growing recognition among farmers and laborers of the importance of an education to improving their social and economic status
They urged the establishment of a new institution, the industrial college The act granted 30,000 acres of land to each state for each senator and representative it had in congress based on the 1860 census; the act specified that the income from the land was to be used to support at least one college that would “tech such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanical arts, . . .in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life” A second Morrill Act (1890) provided for direct annual grants of $15,000 (increasing to $25,000 annually) to each state for the support of land-grant college. The bill also provide that no grant would be given to any state that denied admission to its land-grant colleges because of race without providing “separate but equal” institutions Provided the incentive for both a shift to a new type of curriculum and for greatly expanded state systems of higher education |
Morrill Land Grant Act (Land Grant College)
|
|
|
Formal education was initiated by missionaries who equated education with Christianity and the virtues of civilized life
It was hoped that education would equip Native Americans to become missionaries to their people |
Education of Native Americans (i.e., mission schools, boarding schools, reservation schools, off-reservation public schools)
|
|
|
Much of the education of he Native Americans came about as a result of federal legislation or negotiated treaties
o The objective of the mission schools education was to assimilate Native Americans into American society o Followed a 50/50 curriculum: Half he time was spent in the traditional common school academic subjects, as well as the religion of the sponsoring denomination, and the other half of the time in vocational and agricultural training for boys and domestic arts for girls; Native language and culture were excluded from the curriculum o Mission school experience was not a positive one for most Native Americans of for the missionaries o The net result was “a small number of poorly attended mission schools, a suspicious and disillusioned Indian population, and a few hundred alumni who for the most part were considered outcasts by the whites and Indians alike” o In 1917, this arrangement ended |
Treaties and mission schools
|
|
|
The boarding schools came about after the Civil War and the assimilation approach became popular
o It was felt the most efficient way to advance this assimilation was to remove Native American children from their tribal setting and subject them, in a strict disciplinary setting, to an infusion of American values, language, and customs o The first major boarding school was established in 1879 at Carlisle Pennsylvania o At the boarding schools the students were given new names and forbidden to speak in their native tongue o They were subject to much criticism; the physical and living conditions were often inadequate and the discipline strict and harsh; disease and death were common o The dropout rate was high; students often returned to the reservation rather than entering white society, and upon return to the reservation they found that they were unable to apply the training they had received or that it was irrelevant |
Boarding schools
|
|
|
The reservation day schools offered several advantages over the off-reservation boarding school; not only were they less expensive, they were more acceptable to parents; day schools increased in number after the turn of the 20th century
o The on-reservation public schools tended to encourage not only assimilation but learning |
reservation days and public schools
|
|
|
The first black to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard
Encouraged political activism and in 1909 joined a multiracial group of social activists in founding the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People |
WEB Debois
|
|
|
Through his many writings and articulation of his philosophy, provided the intellectual foundation for progressive education
He rejected the old, rigid, subject-centered curriculum in favor of the child-centered curriculum in which learning came through experience not memorization Problem-solving method was the preferred approach, and motivation was at the center of the learning process The goal of education was to promote individual growth and to prepare the child for full participation in a democratic society Believed that the child should be viewed as a total organism and that education is most effective when it considers not only the intellectual but also the social, emotional, and physical needs of the child Thought education was a life-long process and that school should be an integral part of community life His influence was felt not only in philosophy and education, but also in law, political theory, and social reform |
John Dewey and Progressive education
|
|
|
Sputnik seemed to confirm the growing fear hat they United States was losing the Cold War technological and military races with the Soviet Union because of a shortage of trained teachers, engineers, and students
National Defense Education Act was passed in 1958 By directing significant federal funding to specific curricular areas, particularly mathematics, science, and modern foreign languages; the federal government for the first time attempted to influence the curriculum in general elementary and secondary education Soon the “new math,” “new chemistry,” “new grammar,” and other “new” revisions were being developed and introduced in the schools. Summer institutes were held to train teachers in the use of the new materials and methods The NDEA also provided funding for science, mathematics, ad foreign language laboratories; media and other instructional material; and improvement of guidance, counseling, and testing programs, especially those efforts directed at identification and encouragement of more capable students; student loans and graduate fellowships were also funded under the NDEA |
Sputnik & National Defense Education Act
|
|
|
Centerpiece of education legislation
Provided more than $1 billion in federal funds to education Title I, received about 80% of the funds, which provided assistance to local school districts for the education of children from low-income families The compensatory education programs funded through Title I were intended to maintain the educational process begun in Head Start Other sections of the ESEA provided funds for library resources, textbooks, and instruction materials; supplemental education enters; education research and traiing; and strengthening state departments of education |
Elementary and Secondary Education Act/Title I
|
|
|
Has been described as the “bombshell” on the American education scene
Was a landmark report in the history of education reform in the United States Was responsible for what has been referred to as the “education Reform Movement of the 1980s” In the first wave, states enacted higher graduation requirements, standardized curriculum mandates, increased the testing of both teachrs and students, and raised certification requirements for teachers School districts throughout the nation increased their emphasis on computer literacy, homework, and basic skills; established minimum standards for participation in athletics; and lengthened the school day and school year The second wave focused on the local level and on the structure and processes of schools themselves The major them was the redistribution of power among the critical stakeholders of the schools Prescribed year round schools, longer school days and school years, recast modes of governance, alternative funding patterns all-out commitments to technology, and various combinations of these and other proposals Also sought to balance the concern over the impact of education on the economy and the push for excellence of the first wave with a concern for equity and the disadvantaged students who might become further disadvantaged by the “new standards of excellence” |
A nation at risk
|
|
|
The population 65 years of age and older will outnumber the population 18 ears and under, and the nation will have no dominant single racial or ethnic group by the mid-21st century
o Pressures for public service programs for the elderly and for school-age children will increase o Both the young and the elderly will need educational programs, medical services, recreational programs, and other social services o Public schools will find themselves competing with the elderly for limited resources o Rather than creating divisions and reinforcing barriers between programs for the youth and for the elderly, creative educators will need to find was to integrate the interests of both groups o The increased funding required to meet the various services and medical needs of the growing elderly population will probably have a negative effect on the financing of education o On a positive note a significant number of these senior citizens may take advantage of occupational and postsecondary educational opportunities to prepare for second careers or enhance avocational opportunities o The need for day-care centers will increase o The need for safe, affordable, and quality care for infants and children whose parents are working will continue to plague families, in particularly poor families o The efforts of Head Start programs to prepare all students for schooling will become increasingly important |
Key opportunities and challenges presented by each trend:
Changing demographics |
|
|
The increasing state influence is illustrated by the adoption of state standards and assessment programs in 48 states and provisions for sanctions for underperforming schools, including state takeover, in 20 states
o Increasing state influence has also come with additional state funding o State reporting and accountability mandates have also served to expand the role of the state. o Perhaps, most importantly, the No Child Left Behind Act places the responsibility for ensuring that all children in the state will be achieving at the proficiency level by 2014 on the state, not on local school districts o For the first time in its history the federal government has become involved in development and implementation of standards and assessments for the general education program and in determining the qualifications of educational personnel o Changes in state and federal roles, including mandatory assessments and accountability, have brought major changes in the discretionary powers and responsibilities of local school boards o It has become the responsibility of schools boards to address the problems of underperforming schools without corresponding adjustments in state statutes or regulations o State laws have changed the direction of accountability from the traditional model which teachers and principals are responsible to the central office and school board to a model that extends responsibility to the state and federal governments o Local schools boards are being subjected to a wide range of regulations from local, state, and federal agencies o One possible positive result that could evolve is that the state’s share of the financing of education would increase, bringing more equity to the state finance program o Major concerns are related to the decline in the authority of the teacher to focus on the needs of individual students o Decisions about what content to teach and when to teach that content are externally influenced by the assessment schedule and state content standards o With or without dramatic changes in governance, the roles and responsibilities of school-level personnel will change even if it is merely to implement, without modification, one of the whole-school reform models |
Changing Governmental Roles
|
|
|
If districts have the power to exercise the right to choose their level of spending, inequities in funding per pupil likely will occur
o A second dimension of choice is related to the power of the parent to choose where the education of their child will occur o Advocates contend that school improvement will occur when parents can choose schools for their children form a variety of options; including the choice to attend another public schools on a space-available basis, enroll in a charter school, receive public funds for home schooling, enroll in a virtual school website by going online, or use a public voucher to attend a private or parochial school o Much of the active and visible support comes from low-income parents and child advocates who are concerned about underperforming schools o The NEA reports that teachers, parents, and the general public have long opposed vouchers especially when funds for private schools compete with funds for public schools o Provides parents with the opportunity to exercise choice within the public system o Some limitations include the ability of parents and pupils to change schools without being required to justify their actions, schools are likely to become more racially, ethnically, and/or economically divided; a significant issue is whether the dollars will follow the child whenever the child changes schools, this may lead to a fiscal crisis as the school is forced to make cost savings within a budget year or from year to year |
school choice
|
|
|
In a 2005 nationwide survey, teachers indicated that technology is pervasive and growing in all aspects of the educational enterprise: administrative functions, communications, research and planning, and classroom instruction
o The focus of the No Child Left Behind Act and the accountability movement is on he individual school as the unit of analysis, and accountability reports contain detailed information about the school o Data-driven decision making (D3M), the new buzz phrase of the 21st century, involves data-centered dialogue that is focused on improving student achievement o Online learning has shown tremendous growth; convenience and flexibility are the most often cited factors to the growth of e-learning o One of the most recent developments in the use of technology is blogging o Blogs extend the learning beyond the classroom, creating a more complete learning system; some teachers have also found that blogs provide an avenue for interpersonal relationships and student self-disclosure that was previously inaccessible o One of the most beneficial results of technology integration will be increased access to information; the task of the teacher is to recognize the benefits that can come from empowering others o The ease of technology has the capability of giving all students throughout the nation access to the nation’s best scholars to enrich programs in any school throughout the nation o Technology is a valuable resource in those activities that are an integral part of the process of lifelong learning for both teachers and students o New technologies have brought an age of inexpensive, effortless, and universal web access to the classroom o The challenge confronting educators will be to maintain their own technology skills and to find ways to most effectively utilize new technologies o Technology is increasingly seen as important in closing the achievement gap, ensuring the development of highly qualified teachers for all students, and facilitating the use of the data schools need to meet the adequately yearly progress requirement o Technology will improve the quality of education only to the extent they adopt new ways of applying this tool to teaching and learning |
Increased Reliance on Technology
|
|
|
Increased globalization holds significant import for the exchange of educational ideas and research
o If these nations are to be treated as economic neighbors that provide a market for goods and services, the content and emphasis of the school’s curriculum need to be expanded so that students not only develop an appreciation for the United States and its heritage but also a better understanding of the different values, traditions, cultures, languages, and current conditions in the community of nations that are affected by the different dimensions of globalization o It is imperative for U.S. schools to create classrooms where students and faculty can “pursue global learning as a means to global understanding |
globalization
|
|
|
Explores the nature of reality
For teachers: what is the purpose of education? What is the purpose of teaching a particular student? What is the basic nature of students? How should I interact with them |
Methaphysics (definition and application to teaching)
|
|
|
The nature of knowledge and how it is acquired
For teachers: how do students learn? How do students come to know the world (experience, authority, reason, intuition, active construction of knowledge)? What should be taught? How should I teach? What philosophies should guide my teaching? |
Epistemology (definition and application to teaching)
|
|
|
Ethics, values, and aesthetics
For teachers: how should matters of right and wrong, good and bad, be addressed in the classroom? To what extent should values education and character education be the responsibility of the fine arts (music, art, etc) be in the curriculum? |
Axiology (definition and application to teaching)
|
|
|
Belonging – Attachment
o Friendships, cooperation, listening, laughter Belonging distorted or absent o Isolation, exclusion, gangs Mastery – Achievement o Creative, resilient, motivate Mastery distorted or absent o Cheating, risk avoidance, failure oriented Independence – Autonomy o Self control, assertiveness, responsible, power Independence distorted or absent o Rebellious, manipulative, reckless, bully or victim, irresponsible Generosity – Altrusim o Caring, empathic, unselfish, compassionate Generosity distorted or absent o Over involved, over indulgent, self-centered, lack of purpose, anti-social |
Circle of courage
|
