Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
34 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
JosephJacquard
|
•Invents programmable loom in 1801
–Jacquardloom weaved patterns in fabric –Allowedinput and storage of parameters –Selectionpins oriented with punch cards –Similaritieswith player piano •Concept of the stored program |
|
|
CharlesBabbage
|
•Invents Difference Engine in 1823–Adds,subtracts, multiplies, and divides•Designs Analytical Engine –Componentsof modern computer•Inputand output devices•Memoryand CPU –Notbuilt due to lack of funds •Collaborates with Ada Lovelace Byron–Attributionof program loop concept –Adaprogramming language namesake
|
|
|
HermanHollerith
|
•Invents electromechanical counter in1880s–Servestabulation role in 1890 U.S. census–Machineuses punch cards as input–Single-purposemachine •Company created around technology becomesIBM–IBMrolls out multipurpose Mark I in 1944–MarkI rapidly made obsolete by vacuum tubes |
|
|
|
Progressionof Computer Electronics
|
•Charles Sanders Peirce extends work ofBoole–Electricswitches emulate true/false conditions of Boolean algebra –BenjaminBurackimplements concepts in 1936 logic machine•John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry build a computerusing vacuum tubes•World War II–Developmentalturning point
|
|
|
WartimeResearch Drives Technological Innovation
|
•Military need for trajectory tables –Weaponstesting •U.S.Navy Board of Ordnance helps fund Mark I•U.S.Army funds ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)•ENIAC runs 1000 times faster than Mark I –Bothwere too late for the war effort
|
|
|
ENIACand EDVAC
|
•ENIAC’s overhead –Loudand large: 30 tons•18,000vacuum tubes needed constant attention•6000switches needed for arithmetic operations •ENIAC’s strengths –Performsarithmetic and logic operations–Mademultipurpose with symbolic variables •ENIAC’S weaknesses –Couldnot modify program contents –Hadto be programmed externally
|
|
|
ENIACand EDVAC (cont’d)
|
•EDVAC (Electronic Discrete VariableAutomatic Computer) created in 1944–Recognizedas the Von Neumann machine –Superiormodel for descendant computers –Operationgoverned by program in memory–Programscould be modified –Storedprogram concept made programs reusable •British response: Colossus –Helpscrack German U-boat Enigma code –Allmachines destroyed by 1960s
|
|
|
TheComputer Era Begins: The First Generation
|
•1950s: First Generation for hardware andsoftware–Vacuumtubes worked as memory for the machine–Datawritten to magnetic drums and magnetic tapes–Papertape and data cards handled input–Theline printer made its appearance •Software separates from hardware andevolves –Instructionswritten in binary or machine code –Assemblylanguage: first layer of abstraction –Programmerssplit into system and application engineersby 196|>
|
|
|
UNIVAC(cont’d.)
|
•UNIVAC–Firstcommercially viable computer –U.S.Census Bureau is the first customer –Facesskepticism from Howard Aiken (Mark I builder)•UNIVAC and the 1952 presidential election–Successfullypredicts outcome during CBS broadcast–Quicklyadopted by all major news network
|
|
|
IBM(Big Blue)
|
•IBM dominates mainframe market by the1960s –Strongsales culture –Controlled70% of the market •IBM vision –Sharpfocus on a few products–Leverageexisting business relationships –Introducescalable (and hence flexible) systems –Leasesystems with 10- to 15-year life spans
|
|
|
Transistorsin the Second Generation
|
•Software innovations –Assemblylanguage limitations –Appearanceof high-level languages: FORTRAN, COBOL, LISP •Hardware development –Transistorreplaces vacuum tube –RAMbecomes available with magnetic cores –Magneticdisks support secondary storage
|
|
|
CircuitBoards in the Third Generation
|
•Integrated circuits (IC) on chips –Miniaturizedcircuit components on board –Semiconductorproperties –Reducecost and size –Improvereliability and speed • Operating systems (OS) –Programto manage jobs –Utilizesystem resources –Allowmultiple users
|
|
|
Time-Sharing |
•Allocates system resources to multipleusers –Inputwith long paper rolls instead of punch cards –Productivitygains offset by increased response time•General-purpose machines broadenappeal •Programmers gear software toward end user–Distinctionsbetween application level and OS level–Statisticaland accounting programs hide implementation details
|
|
|
Livingin the ’70s with the Fourth Generation
|
•Era of miniaturization–LSIchips contain up to 15,000 circuits –VLSIchips contain 100,000 to 1 million circuits•Minicomputer industry grows •UNIX operating system was created–Freeto educational institutions •Microcomputer makes appearance
|
|
|
ThePersonal Computer Revolution
|
•Causes:–Hardwarevision of engineers –Softwaredevelopers seeking challenges–Electronichobbyists realizing a dream –All necessary hardware and softwareelements were at hand or being developed–Social, economic, and personalforces came together for support
|
|
|
Intel
|
•Intel 4004 chip–4004transistors onboard –Accruesgreater functionality –Precursorto central processing unit (CPU) •Gary Kildall –WritesOS for Intel microprocessor •Software and hardware become separatecommodities
|
|
|
TheAltair 8800
|
•Development spurred by Popular Electronics •Ed Roberts reports on the Altair 8800–Kitbased on Intel 8080 –Generates4000 orders within three months •Altair 8800 features–I/Osimilar to ENIAC’s –Openarchitecture provides adaptability –Portable
|
|
|
EnterBill Gates, Paul Allen, and Microsoft)
|
•Gates and Allen –Developa BASIC interpreter –High-levellanguage for microcomputer programmers •Briefly associate with MITS •Formed Micro-Soft company in 1975–By 1981, Microsoft was on its wayto becoming a multibillion-dollar company
|
|
|
TheMicrocomputer Begins to Evolve
|
•Microcomputer’s profitability lures moreplayers–EnterRadio Shack, IMSAI, Sphere, and others •Altair’s bus becomes S100 industrystandard •MITS stumbles –Linksprices of faulty hardware to BASIC–Developsnew model incompatible with 8080•1977–MITSsold off–Hardwarecompanies introduce competing models
|
|
|
AnApple a Day
|
•1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak offerApple I •1977: Apple II developed and released –Basedon Motorola 6502 processor –Gainsrespect in industry, as well as among hobbyists –Promotesapplication development • VisiCalc spreadsheet program –DrivesApple II sales –Earnsnew title: killer app Drawsattention of wider business community
|
|
|
IBMOffers the PC
|
•IBM builds a microcomputer–Adoptsthe Intel 8088 off the shelf –Usesa nonproprietary CPU –Createsapproachable documentation –Offersopen architecture •New product name: personal computer(PC) •PC sold through retail outlets
|
|
|
MS-DOS
|
•IBM chooses Microsoft to develop OS •Microsoft introduces MS-DOS –Basedon Kildall’s8-bit CP/M –Runson 16-bit CPU (Intel 8088) –Prevailsover competition •IBM calls operating system PC-DOS
|
|
|
TheApple Macintosh Raises the Bar
|
•Steve Jobs visits Xerox PARC –Alto:graphics, menus, icons, windows, and mouse –Observesfunctioning Ethernet network –Learnsabout hypertext •Jobs succeeds with Xerox ideas –Picksup where Xerox (focused on copiers) leaves off –IncorporatesPalo Alto components in Macintosh •1984: Macintosh unveiled –Graphicaluser interface (GUI) –Mouse:point-and-click and ease-of-use
|
|
|
OtherPCs (and One Serious OS Competitor) Begin to Emerge
|
•Microsoft two-fold argument to IBM –Adaptopen architecture concept to OS –AllowMicrosoft freedom to license its OS•Microsoft answers Apple –Windows3.1 incorporates Mac’s GUI features–CompetingPC clones appear with Microsoft’s OS•Microsoft leverages position –OSpresence drives application software sales –Salessynergies and licensing give 90% of PC pie
|
|
|
TheLatest Generation (Fifth)
|
•Parallel computing –Akaparallel architecture –CPUsjoined for simultaneous task execution •Three approaches –SIMD(single instruction, multiple data) stream –MIMD(multiple instruction, multiple data) stream–Internetworking•Uses –ControlWeb pages, databases, and networks –Mathematicalmodeling and scientific research
|
|
|
TheInternet
|
•ARPA origins of new communicationsystem –Resourcesharing –Commonprotocols –Faulttolerance •1969: ARPANET born –Consistedof four computers at four locations –Systemslinked with Interface Message Processor •ARPANET grows rapidly –Protocolsallow easy entry into network –Electronicmail constitutes two-thirds of network traffic
|
|
|
LANsand WANs and other ANs
|
•The Internet as a network of networks –Widearea network (WAN) –Localarea network (LAN) –Wirelesslocal area network (WLAN) –Metropolitanarea network (MAN) –Urbanarea network (UAN) •Network technologies –Ethernetdominates–Wirelesstechnologies
|
|
|
SuperSoftware and the Web
|
•Object-oriented programming (OOP) •Computer-aided software engineering(CASE) •Origin of the World Wide Web (WWW) –1990:Tim Berners-Lee develops hypertext–Microsoftand Internet Explorer•Web components –Webpages –Browser–Networktechnology
|
|
|
TheMicrosoft Era and More
|
•The “browser wars” –Microsoftintegrates IE browser into Windows –Netscapeopposes Microsoft: goes open source •The wars continue in court –U.S.government files antitrust suit against Microsoft –By2001, most of antitrust suit was dropped or lessened•Linux OS threatens Windows: Low cost,open source, and reliability-End
|
|
|
WhatAbout the Future?
|
•Parallel computing –Massiveamplification of computing power –Canbe hosted by local networks as well as the Internet• Wireless networking –Bluetooth–Embeddedor ubiquitous computing •Digitization of economy •Privacy and security •Open-source movement
|
|
|
OneLast Thought
|
•Development as a product of needs andwants •Mixture of forces driving innovation –Commercialand physical requirements (IC) –Needto solve a problem (Analytical Engine)–Desireto create something new (Apple I) –Goalof winning a war (World War II) –Needto succeed (Bill Gates) •Evolutionary view •Purpose of historical study –Avoidmistakes and emulate triumphs
|
|
|
Summary
|
•The evolution of computers–Tiedto mathematical evolution and driven by the need to master time and space •From stone tablets to electronic machines–Computer’schief purpose: manipulate mathematical and linguistic symbols •Civilizations from the times of theancients to the present–Contributedto the development of computers and their science
|
|
|
Summary(cont’d.)
|
•Past leading to computer developmentincluded:–Mechanicalcalculators invented in the 17th century by Pascal and Leibniz –Jacquardloom of 1801 introduced the punch card and the concept of a stored program–CharlesBabbage designed a prototype of the modern computer: the Analytical Engine –HermanHollerith incorporated punch cards in his mechanical tabulating machines
|
|
|
Summary(cont’d.)
|
•World War II drove computer innovation inthe mid-20th century: ENIAC, Mark I, Colossus •EDVAC’s Von Neumann architecture–Basicmodel for all later development •Progress from vacuum tubes to integratedcircuits–Exponentiallyincreased computer speed and simultaneously reduced the size and cost•Microcomputer and Internet–Latter20th-century developmentMadecomputers ubiquitous
|
