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238 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Percentage of world population contributed by the U.S.
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5%. U.S. pop = 307 million. World pop = 6.8 billion
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Percentage of greenhouse emissions produced by the U.S.
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25%.
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Percentage of total electricity consumed by U.S.
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33%.
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Percentage of total gasoline consumed by U.S.
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43%.
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Percentage of global consumption of everything by U.S.
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25%.
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What are our major environmental problems?
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1. Too Many Humans on Earth.
2. Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation. 3. Loss of Biodiversity. 4. Anthropogenic Climate Change. |
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Cause of "Dead" Zone in the Gulf of Mexico.
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Nitrogen an phosphorus fertilizers washed from crops in the U.S. into the Gulf of Mexico. This causes algae to grow and develop, but once they die they create a harmful environment or a "Dead" Zone.
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Definitions of Ecology
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1920: "Scientific Natural History"
1940: "Economy of Nature" 1953: "The sudty of relations between living things and their environment" 2009: "The scientific study of the relationship between organisms and their environment" OIKOS = Dwelling Place LOGY = Study of Hence, Oecology or Ecology. |
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Cake of Biological Study
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A model representing the study of biology themes as a cake. The Layers are "Basic Divisions", such as Molecular, Development, Genetics, Biology, etc. The Slices are "Taxonomic Divisions", such as Bacteriology, Ornithology, Botany, etc. Evolution provides the "Binder" that shoots through the center of the cake and holds everything together.
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Taxonomic Divisions of Biology
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1. Monera
2. Protista 3. Fungi 4. Plantae 5. Animalia a. Ornithology b. Mammology etc. |
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Environment
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All things that surround and impinge upon an organism.
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Ecology
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A field of study - the study of relationships between living things and their environment.
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Realm of Ecology
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Biosphere, Ecosystems, Communities, Populations, and Organisms.
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Synecology
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Study of ecology that focuses on the realm of ecology, excluding the individual. Thus, the Biosphere, Ecosystems, Communities, and Populations.
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Autecology
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Study of ecology that focuses on the organisms in the realm of ecology.
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Levels of study of biology
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Planets - Earth - Biosphere - Ecosystems - Communities - Populations - Organisms - Organ Systems - Organs - Tissues - Cells - Molecules - Atoms - Subatomic Particles
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Three Basic Approaches to Ecology
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1. Observational or Descriptive: Natural History
2. Functional: How things change in near time 3. Evolutionary: Evolutionary history, the ultimate causes |
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Aristotle
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340 BC.
1. Assembled all the known knowledge of the natural world. 2. Impressed with the stability of nature 3. Created the ladder of life with objects such as rocks at the bottom (considered imperfect) and with humans at the top (considered perfect). |
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John Graunt
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1662
1. Created first actuarial table of life by using attendance records from local churches 2. This "life table" revealed things such as average lifespan 3. Called the "father of biography." |
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Carolus Linnaeus
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1758
1. The first to try and organize all living things known to humans into something called "natural classification" 2. Unknowningly, this "natural classification" was really a snapshot of groups of similar evolutionary pathways |
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Thomas Malthus
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1798
1. First to suggest that the human population was becoming too large for the island of England. 2. Population Ecologist; large influence on Charles Darwin |
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Charles Lyell
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1830
1. Geologist 2. Wrote Principles of Ecology; a three volume set 3. Convinced people that the Earth was billions of years old and not thousands 4. Also a large influence on Charles Darwin |
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Charles Thoreau
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1854
1. Encouraged the belief that humans are a part of nature and not apart from it. |
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Charles Darwin
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1859
1. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. |
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Ernest Haeckel
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1866
1. Coined "Ecology". |
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Stephen Forbes
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1887
1. Studied the environment holistically, such as fish, the water, and the mud. 2. Approached ecosystems and not individual organisms. |
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Henry Cowles
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1889
1. Studied plant recession. |
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G.F. Gause
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1934
1. Studied predator-prey relationships. 2. Studied competition among organisms. |
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Ray Lindeman
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1942
1. Approached ecosystems as well but studied the energy transfer through the ecosystem. |
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Aldo Leopold
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1949
1. First conservationist in North America 2. Challenged humans to take better care of the Earth, especially the soil. |
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Rachel Carson
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1962
1. Showed how pesticides, such as DDT, were having unforeseen negative effects on the environment. |
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Eugene Odum
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1954
1. Wrote the first modern textbook of ecology. |
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Robert McArthur
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1966
1. Applied mathematics to ecology. |
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E.O. Wilson
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2005
1. Champion of conserving biodiversity. |
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Charles Elton
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1927
1. Wrote the first animal ecology textbook. 2. First to analyze different levels of ecosystems. |
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Victor Shelford
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1915
1. First president of Ecological Society. 2. Wrote a lot of introductory textbook material. |
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Scientific Method (Detailed)
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1. Define Problem
2. Review Literature 3. Form Hypothesis 4. Choose Research Design 5. Collect Data 6. Analyze Data 7. Draw Conclusions/Interpret Results 8. Report Findings |
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Scientific Method (General)
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1. Observation
2. Hypothesis 3. Prediction 4. Experiment 5. Analysis |
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General Path from Observations to Theory
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Observation to Flash of Insight to Hypothesis to Pre-Liminary Model to Law to Theory
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Law
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A concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of science, such as Newton's Law of Gravity
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Theory
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An explanation of reality that has been thoroughly tested to be incorrect and has survived to create a sense of agreement between scientists.
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Ecology
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Scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment. Environment includes physical and chemical conditions as well as biological or living components of an organism's surroundings. Relationships include interactions with the physical world as well as with the members of the same and other species.
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Ecosystems
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Organisms interact with their environment in the context of the ecosystem. Broadly, the ecosystem consists of two components, the living (biotic) and the physical (abiotic, such as temperature, pressure, gases, etc.), interacting as a system.
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Hierarchical Structure
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Ecological systems can be viewed as an hierarchical framework, from individual organisms to the biosphere. Organisms of the same species that inhabitat a given physical environment make up a population. Interacting populations make up communities. Community plus the physical environment make up ecosystems. Geographic regions having similar geological and climate conditions support similar types of communities and ecosytems, called biomes. The highest level of organization of ecological systems is the biosphere - the thin layer around the earth that support all life.
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What interactions occur. between an organism and its own and other species?
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These interactions range from competition for shared resources to predation to mutual benefit.
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Ecological Studies
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At each level in the hierarchy of ecological systems - from the individual organism to the biosphere - a different and unique set of patterns and processes emerges; and subsequently, a different set of questions and approaches for studying theses processes and patterns is required.
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Models
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From research data, ecologists develop models. Models allow us to predict some behavior or response using a set of explicit assumptions. They are abstractions and simplifications of natural phenomena. Such simplification is necessary to understand natural processes.
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Uncertainty in Science
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An inherent feature of scientific study is uncertainty; it arises from the limitations that we can focus on only a small subset of nature, and it results in an incomplete perspective. The real goal of hypothesis testing is to eliminate incorrect ideas, not confirming correct ones.
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Individuals
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Individuals are the basic units of ecology. It responds to the environment. The collective birth and death of individuals defines the dynamics of populations, and the interactions among individuals of the same and different species define communities. The individual passes genes to successive generations.
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Two Major Categories of Aquatic Ecosystems
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1. Saltwater (marine)
2. Freshwater |
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Water Cycle
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AKA - Hydrologic Cycle. The process by which water travels in a sequence from air to earth and returns to the atmosphere.
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What drives the water cycle?
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The sun which provides solar radiation and thus energy for the evaporation of water.
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Precipitation
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The falling of condensed water molecules which sets the water cycle in motion.
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Interception
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The process by which objects such as vegetation, dead organic matter, and urban structures and streets prevent water from infiltrating the soil or a body of water.
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Infiltration
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The process by which the soil absorbs the water precipitating from the atmosphere.
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What does interception cause?
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Water to quickly evaporate back into the atmosphere.
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Groundwater
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The collection of infiltrated water that seeps down to an impervious layer of clay or rock.
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Transpiration
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The evaporation of water from internal surfaces of leaves, stems, and other living parts of plants.
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Evapotranspiration
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The total amount of evaporating water from the surfaces of the ground and vegetation.
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Water Breakdown
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97.1% Oceans
2.2% Polar Ice Caps and Glaciers 0.6% Groundwater 0.01% Surface Lakes and Rivers 0.001% Atmosphere (water vapor) |
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When light strikes water at a lower angle what happens?
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A larger amount of the light is deflected.
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Two Additional Processes that Reduce the Amount of Light that is Reflected
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1. Suspended particles, both alive and dead, intercept the light and either absorb it or scatter it. Scattering increases the path of travel and further diminishes it.
2. Water itself absorbs light. Visible red light and IR greater than 750 nm is absorbed first, which reduces solar radiation by 1/2. Then yellow, then green, then violet disappear. Blue light makes its way down, diminishing as it travels. |
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Thermocline
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The region of the vertical depth profile of the ocean where the temperature declines most rapidly.
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Epilimnion
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The region of the vertial depth profile of the ocean that is located above the thermocline, which is warmer and less dense.
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Hypolimnion
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The region of the vertical depth profile of the ocean that is located below the thermoline, which is cooler and more dense.
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What does the thermocline act as?
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A physical barrier, separating the Epilimnion and the Hypolimnion.
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Solution
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A homogenous mixture of two or more substances.
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Solvent
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The agent that dissolves
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Solute
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The substance that is dissolved.
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Aqueous Solution
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A solution in which water is the solvent.
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What makes water special as a solvent?
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It can dissolve more substances than can any other liquid.
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What does water help to do within organisms?
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1. Enables transport of molecules and waste
2. Helps regulate temperature 3. Preserves chemical equilibrium |
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Diffusion
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Tendency of molecules to move from a region of high concentration to one of lower concentration.
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How does oxygen diffuse?
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Oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere into the surface water. It continues to diffuse from the surface (more concentrated) to lower depths (less concentrated).
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How does the saturation value compare between warm and cold water?
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The saturation value of oxygen is greater for cold water than warm water because the solubility of gas in water decreases as the temperature increases.
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Oxygen Minimum Zone
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Depth of the ocean that contains the least amount of oxygen. It occurs at the 500 - 1000 meter depth.
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Carbonic Acid System
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A highly complex system in which carbonic acid is converted to bicarbonate and then to carbonate and vice versa. This systems acts as a buffer to decrease the change in pH and keep the pH in a narrow range. Carbonic acid is able to donate and accept protons in a manner to accomplish its use as a buffer.
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Why are many organisms unable to survive in a pH lower than 4.5?
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In this pH there is a large concentration of Aluminum which is toxic to marine life. Aluminum is insoluble when the pH is neutral or basic.
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What largely determines the nature of many aquatic environments?
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The movement of water, such as currents in streams, and waves in an open body of water or breaking on a shore.
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What speed is considered fast for a stream?
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50cm per second or higher. Water at this speed is able to move particles smaller than 5mm in diameter.
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What does a higher water volume increase?
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Velocity.
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How does a stream's character change from fast to slow?
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As the gradient decreases and the width, depth, and volume increases, silt and decaying matter accumulate on the bottom, slowing the stream.
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Upwelling
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The movement of deep-water currents to the surface once they meet in the equatorial waters of the ocean and close the pattern of ocean circulation.
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What do tides result from?
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The gravitational pull of the Sun and the moon, each of which causes two bulges (tides) in the waters of the ocean.
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Tides caused by the Moon
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The two bulges caused by the moon occur at the same time on opposite sides of Earth on an imaginary line extending from the Moon through the center of the Earth.
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How does a full or new Moon affect tides?
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During a full or new Moon, the Moon, Earth, and Sun are nearly in line which makes for exceptionally large high-tides and exceptionally small low-tides (Spring Tides).
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How does either quarter Moon afffect tides?
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When the Moon is at either quarter, the two forces interfere which makes for exceptionally low and high tides (Neap Tides).
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Intertidal Zone
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The area lying between water lines of high and low tides.
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Estuary
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An area where freshwater joins and mixes with saltwater.
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Tidal Overmixing
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The phenomenon in which seawater on the surface tends to sink as lighter freshwater rises, and mixing takes place from the surface to the bottom.
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Water Table
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The top of water in the ground in which the area below it is completely saturated.
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Perched Water Table
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A water tabel taht is located above the main water table because of the presence of an impervious layer of rock.
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Aquifer
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A large mass of underground water generally found 150-300 ft below the Earth's surface.
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Fritz-Haber Ammonia Synthesis (Fertilizer)
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1. Developed process using heat and pressure in 1900 in Germany
2. Won Nobel Prize in 1919 3. Haber-Bosch industrial version of the process developed after WWI 4. About 1/3 of the protein in the human diet is made from synthetic nitrogen (anhydrous ammonia) |
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What are pollution effects determined by?
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1. Concentration
2. Toxicity 3. Persistence |
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How can scientists approximate CO2 levels from thousands of years ago?
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From air bubbles trapped in glaciers, studying the rings of trees, etc.
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What is the correlation between CO2 and temperature?
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Plotting the historical levels of each has revealed that an increase in the level of CO2 in the atmosphere is quickly followed by a relative increase in temperature.
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Why does the correlation between CO2 levels and temperature exist?
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The accumulation of CO2 increases the amount of solar radiation that is retained once it has entered the atmosphere and thus the temperature increases.
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How much has the average temperature of the Earth's surface risen since 1850?
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0.5 degrees Celsius.
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How much has the Columbia Glacier in Alaska retreated since 1980?
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400 feet.
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Biogeochemical Cycle
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The cycling of nutrients from abiotic components of the ecosystem to the biotic components and evetually back to the abitotic components once again.
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2 Basic Types of Biogeochemical Cycles
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1. Gaseous (Atmoshpere and Ocean) - Distinctly Global
2. Sedimentary (Soils, Rocks, and Minerals) a. Mineral Cycle consists of two phases: 1. Rock Phase 2. Salt Solution Phase |
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What are the dominant components of the Earth's atmosphere?
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1. Nitrogen (78%)
2. Oxygen (21%) 3. CO2 (0.003%) |
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Why is water an important part of the biogeochemical cycle?
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Water is the medium that moves elements and other materials through the ecosystem. Without the cycling of water, biogeochemical cycles would cease.
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Common Structure of Biogeochemical Cycles
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1. Inputs
2. Internal Cycling 3. Ouputs |
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Examples of Inputs
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1. Wetfall: Nutrients brought to the soil by precipiation
2. Dryfall: Nutrients brought to the soil by airborne particles and aerosols. |
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Examples of Internal Cycling
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The uptake of vegetation by an herbivore that uses the minerals and nutrients for activity and may recycle those minerals and nutrients through feces or death.
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Examples of Outputs
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1. Carbon transport in the form of CO2 through respiration by organisms
2. The transformation of nutrients to a gaseous phase by microbial and plant processes. |
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Relationship between Energy and Carbon
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Carbon is so closely tied to energy flow that the two are inseperable. In fact, we often express ecosystem productivity in terms of grams of carbon fixed per square meter per year.
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The source of all carbon, both in living organisms and fossil deposits
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Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and the water of Earth.
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Carbon Cycle
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INGOING (ATMOSPHERE & OCEANS): From respiration by animals, decomposers, and green plants and algae. From combustion of peat, coal, gas, and oil. From decomposition of dead organic matter by decomposers.
OUTGOING (ATMOSPHERE & OCEANS): To plants and algae for photosynthesis. INGOING (PLANTS & ALGAE): From atmosphere for photosynthesis. OUTGOING (PLANTS & ALGAE): To decomposers by death. To animals by ingestion. To atmosphere by respiration. INGOING (ANIMALS): From ingestion of plants. OUTGOING (ANIMALS): To decomposer by death. INGOING (DECOMPOSERS): From death of plants algae and animals. OUTGOING (DECOMPOSERS): To peat, coal, gas, and oil by carbonification. To limestone on ocean floor. INGOING (FOSSIL FUELS): From decomposers by carbonification. OUTGOING (FOSSIL FUELS): To the atmosphere by combustion. |
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Nitrogen Cycle
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OUTGOING (ATMOSPHERE): To cyanobacteria of the ocean. To free-living and root bacteria of the soil.
INGOING (ATMOSPHERE): From decomposers by denitrification. From the eruption of volcanoes. OUTGOING (SOIL BACTERIA): To decomposers of the soil. To plants in the form of NH3, NH4, and NO3. INGOING (SOIL BACTERIA): From the atmosphere. From decomposers in the soil. OUTGOING (DECOMPOSERS): To marine sediments. To the atmosphere by denitrification. To soil bacteria. INGOING (DECOMPOSERS): From soil bacteria. From death of plants. From death and excretion of animals. From cyanobacteria of the ocean. OUTGOING (ANIMALS): To decomposer by death. INGOING (ANIMALS): From plants by ingestion. OUTGOING (PLANTS): To decomposers by death. INGOING (PLANTS): From soil bacteria in the form of NH3, NH4, and NO3. OUTGOING (CYANOBACTERIA): To marine sediments. To decomposers by death. INGOING (CYANOBACTERIA): From atmosphere. From marine sediments. OUTGOING (MARINE SEDIMENTS): To cyanobacteria of the ocean. INGOING (MARINE SEDIMENTS): From death of cyanobacteria. From death of decomposers. |
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Phosphate Cycle
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OUTGOING (PHOSPHATE ROCKS): To dissolved phosphates by erosion.
INGOING (PHOSPHATE ROCKS): From shallow marine sediments. From marine birds and fish in the form of guano. From algae by death. OUTGOING (DISSOLVED PHOSPHATES): To shallow marine sediments. To plants by uptake. INGOING (DISSOLVED PHOSPHATES): From phosphate rocks by erosion. From phosphating bacteria. From bones and teeth of animals. OUTGOING (SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS): To phosphate rocks. To deep marine sediments. To algae by upwelling. INGOING (SHALLOW MARINE SEDIMENTS): From bones and teeth of animals. From dissolved phosphates. OUTGOING (DEEP MARINE SEDIMENTS): To algae by upwelling. INGOING (DEEP MARINE SEDIMENTS): From shallow marine sediments. OUTGOING (ALGAE): To marine birds and fish. INGOING (ALGAE): From upwelling of shallow marine sediments. From upwelling of deep marine sediments. OUTGOING (MARINE BIRDS & FISH): To phosphate rocks in the form of guano. INGOING (MARINE BIRDS & FISH): From algae by ingestion. OUTGOING (PLANTS & ANIMALS): To decomposers by death. To dissolved phosphates from bones and teeth. To shallow marine sediments from bones and teeth. INGOING (PLANTS & ANIMALS): From dissolved phosphates by uptake. OUTGOING (DECOMPOSERS): To phosphating bacteria. INGOING (DECOMPOSERS): From animals and plants by death. OUTGOING (PHOSPHATING BACTERIA): To dissolved phosphates by death. INGOING (PHOSPHATING BACTERIA): From decomposers. |
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Water Cycle
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OUTGOING (ATMOSPHERE): To soil in the form of precipitation and infiltration. To surface waters in the form of precipitation.
INGOING (ATMOSPHERE): From plants by transpiration. From surface waters by evaporation. From soil by evaporation. OUTGOING (PLANTS): To atmosphere by transpiration. INGOING (PLANTS): From soil by uptake. OUTGOING (SOIL): To atmosphere by evaporation. To surface water by surface runoff. To surface water by percolation. INGOING (SOIL): From atmosphere by precipitation and infiltration. OUTGOING (SURFACE WATER): To atmosphere by evaporation. INGOING (SURFACE WATER): From soil by surface runoff. From soil by percolation. |
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Sulfur Cycle
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OUTGOING (ATMOSPHERE): To plants by uptake.
INGOING (ATMOSPHERE): From solid sulfur deposits. From pollutants discharged by nuclear plants. From soil by evaporation. From eruption of volcano. OUTGOING (PLANTS & ANIMALS): To the soil by death. INGOING (PLANTS & ANIMALS): From the atmosphere by uptake. OUTGOING (SURFACE WATER): To sediments by deposition. To plankton. INGOING (SURFACE WATER): From exposed solid sulfur deposits. OUTGOING (PLANKTON): To creation of organic sulfur. INGOING (PLANKTON): From dissolved sulfur in the water. OUTGOING (ORGANIC SULFUR): To plankton. INGOING (ORGANIC SULFUR): From dissolved sulfur in the water. From plankton. |
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Oxygen Cycle
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OUTGOING (ATMOSPHERE): To organisms for respiration. To surface water by diffusion.
INGOING (ATMOSPHERE): To plants from photosynthesis. OUTGOING (ANIMALS): To atmosphere by decomposition. INGOING (ANIMALS): From the atmosphere for respiration. OUTGOING (PLANTS): To atmosphere by photosynthesis. INGOING (PLANTS): To plants from O2 created by photosynthesis. |
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Weather
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The combination of temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, cloudiness, and other atmospheric conditions occurring at a specific place and time.
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Climate
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The long-term average pattern of weather and may be local, regional, or global.
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What largely determines the terrestrial ecosystems?
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The dominant plants, which reflect the prevailing physical environmental conditions.
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Greenhouse Effect
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The process the Earth's atmosphere uses to trap long wave radiation to the surface of the Earth.
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Visible Light
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Electromagnetic radiation that is between 400 and 700 nm.
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Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
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The group of wavelengths of visible light named so because plants use them as a source of energy for photosynthesis.
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Autumnal and Vernal Equinox
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The Sun's rays fall directly on the equator and every place on Earth experiences 12 hours of daylight.
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Summer Solstice
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The Sun's rays fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer and the longest days of the year occur in the Northern Hemisphere.
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Winter Solstice
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The Sun's rays fall directly on the Tropic of Capricorn and the longest days of the year occur in the Southern Hemisphere.
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Arctic and Antarctic Day Lengths
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During the winter solstice, the days shorten to continous darkness. During the summer solstice, the days lengthen to continous daylight.
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Atmospheric Pressure
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The amount of force exerted by the atmosphere over a given area.
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Environmental Lapse Rate
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The rate at which temperature decreases with altitude.
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Two Reasons for the Decrease in Temperature with Elevation
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1. There is less air pressure at greater altitudes results in slower movement of the molecules and thus a lower temperature.
2. The amount of energy released as heat from the surface of the Earth is greater near the surface but dissipates rapidly. |
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Adiabatic Cooling
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The decrease in air temperature due to expansion, rather than through heat loss to the surrounding atmosphere.
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Adiabatic Cooling and Elevation
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Because the atmospheric pressure decreases with elevation, the air is able to expand; therefore, it is able to cool through adiabatic cooling and becomes much cooler than the lower, more dense air.
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Coriolis Effect
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The deflection in the pattern of air flow in which an object moving from a greater circumference to a lesser circumference will deflect in the direction of the spin. However, an object moving from a lesser circumference to a greater circumference will deflect in the direction opposite to the spin.
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Wind Movement of the Earth
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Because of the Coriolis Effect, the winds in the Northern Hemisphere move toward the east with the rotation of the Earth. However, in the Southern Hemisphere, the winds move east against the rotation of the Earth.
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Currents
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The systematic patterns of water movement. In fact, until they encounter one of the continents, the major ocean currents generally mimic the movement of the wind currents above.
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Gyres
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The great water motions that dominate the oceans. These move clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
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Latent Heat
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The amount of energy needed to change the phase of a substance.
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Evaporation
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The transformation of water from a liquid to a gaseous state.
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Condensation
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The transformation of water vapor to a liquid state.
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Vapor Pressure
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The amount of pressure water vapor exerts independent of the pressure of dry air.
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Saturation Vapor Pressure
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The water vapor content of air at saturation.
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Absolute Humidity
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The amount of water in a given volume of air.
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Relative Humidity
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The amount of water vapor in the air expressed as a percentage of the saturation vapor pressure.
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Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
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The narrow region where the warm, humid southern trade winds meet the cooler northeasterly trade winds and results in high amounts of precipitation.
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Windward Side (of a Mountain)
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The side of a mountain that initially intercepts winds that ascend the mountain, cool, become saturated with water, and release much of its moisture at higher altitudes. This side supports denser, more vigorous vegetation and different plants and associated animals.
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Leeward Side (of a Mountain)
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The side of the mountain that accepts the dry cool air from the top of the mountain which collects moisture as it descends and creates desert-like conditions.
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Rain Shadow Effect
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The environmental effects that are produced on opposite sides (windward and leeward) when winds pass over a mountain.
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El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
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A phenomenon that is a global event arising from large-scale interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere. During normal conditions, strong trade winds move surface waters westward. As the surface currents move westward, the water warms. The warmer water of the western Pacific causes the moist meritime air to rise and cool, bringing abundant rainfall to the region. However, under ENSO conditions, the trade winds slacken, reducing the westward flow of the surface currents. Rainfall follows the warm water eastward, with associated flooding in Peru and drought in Indonesia and Australia. j
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Microclimate
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A climate that differs from the general climate of the landscape because of light, heat, moisture, and air movement. This influences the transfer of heat energy and creates a wide range of localized climates.
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In the Northern Hemisphere, which aspect receives the most solar radiation?
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The south facing slopes.
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Urban Heat Islands
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The effect that is caused by the lack of vegetation to absorb solar radiation in urban areas. This causes urban environments to be several degrees warmer than their rural counterparts on warm days with little or no wind.
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Aquifer
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A layer of water-bearing permeable rock, sand, or gravel capable of providing significant amounts of water.
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Ogallala Aquifer
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An aquifer located in the central United States that provides approximately 30 percent of the groundwater used for irrigation in the United States.
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What were some of the constraint of the evolution of terrestrial organisms from their aquatic ancestors?
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1. The ability to stay hydrated.
2. Overcoming the demand of gravity. 3. The high degree of variability of terrestrial environments because of the air's reduced specific heat. |
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What was the biggest constraint of the evolution of terrestrial organisms from their aquatic ancestors?
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The ability to maintain the amount of water that is required in the cells and body for life.
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Water Balance
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The maintainence of the balance of water between organisms and their environment.
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What is the dominant factor influencing the vertical gradient of light in terrestrial environments?
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The absorption and reflection of solar radiation by plants.
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What is the light at any depth in a canopy determined by?
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The number of leaves above.
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Leaf Area Index (LAI)
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The area of leaves per unit of ground area. A leaf index of 3 indicates a quantity of 3 meters squared of leaf area of each meter squared of ground area. The greater the leaf index the lower the quantity of light reaching the surface below.
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Which part of the visible light spectrum decreases most as it move through the canopy?
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PAR decreases rapidly through the canopy. The decrease in the amount of this light affects the production of phytochrome ( a pigment that allows a plant to perceive shading by other plants), thus influencing the growth patterns of the plants below.
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In which type of environment, forest or meadow, reflects more PAR?
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Meadows typically reflect 20% of the PAR that it encounters, while forests tend to reflect 10%.
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Regolith
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An unconsolidated layer of debris overlaying hard, unweathered rock where the soil is formed.
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Mechanical Weathering
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Weathering that results from the interaction of several forces such as, water, wind and temperature without appreciably influencing their composition.
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Chemical Weathering
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Weathering that results from exposure to processes that chemically alter the rocks.
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Five Interdependent Factors Important to Soil Formation
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1. Parent Material
2. Climate 3. Biotic Factors 4. Topography 5. Time |
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Parent Material
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The material from which soil develops. These materials may have been deposited by eroded bedrock, glaciers, sand or silt carried by the wind, gravity moving material down a slope, or from sediments carried in by the flow of water.
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Biotic Factors
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The interactions of plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi that affect soil formation. This includes the uptake of material by plants from the surrounding soil.
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Climate Factors
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Temperature, precipitation, and winds directly influence the physical and chemical reactions responsible for breaking down parent material and the subsequent leaching and movement of weathered materials.
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Leaching
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The movement of solutes through the soil.
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Topography
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The countour of the land, can affect how climate influences the weathering process. More water runs off and less enters the soil on steep slopes than on level land, whereas water draining from slopes enters the soil on low flat land.
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Time
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A crucial element in soil formation because all of the other factors assert themselves through time.
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Important Distinguishing Physical Characteristics of Soil
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1. Color
2. Texture |
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Soil Color
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Probably the most easily defined and useful characteristics of soil. Organic matter makes soil dark or black. Oxides of iron give a color to the soil ranging from yellowish-brown to red. Manganese give the soil a purplish to black color.
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Texture
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Proportion of different-sized soil particles. It is partly inherited from parent material and partly a result of the soil-forming process. Texture plays a major role in the movement of water and the penetration of roots.
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Four Horizons of Soil
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1. O horizon (organic layer)
2. A horizon (topsoil) 3. B horizon (subsoil) 4. C horizon (unconsolidated material) |
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O Horizon
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The organic layer that is dominated by the presence of organic material, consisting of partially decomposed plant materials such as leaves, needles, twigs, mosses, and lichens.
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A Horizon
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The topsoil which is the first of the layers that are largely composed of mineral soil derived from the parent materials. Generally a darker color than the other lower layers.
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B Horizon
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The subsoil containing much less orgainic matter than the A horizon and shows accumulations of mineral particles such as clay and salts due to leaching from the top soil.
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C Horizon
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The unconsolidated material that lies under the subsoil and is generally made of original material from which the soil developed.
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Field Capacity
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The condition in which all of the pore space has been filled with water and is held there by internal capillary forces. The amount of water a soild holds is dependent on the soil's texture - Clay soils have small pores and hold considerably more water.
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Capillary Water
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Water held between soil particles by capillary forces.
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Wilting Point
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The moisture level of the soil where plants can no longer extract water.
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Available Water Capacity (AWC)
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The amount of water retained by the soil between field capacity and wiliting point (or the difference between FC and WP)
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Ion Exchange Capacity
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The total number of charged sites on soil particles within a volume of soil.
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Colloids
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Negatively charged particles in the soil which contribute to the dominance of cation exchange over anion exchange.
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Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
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The total number of negatively charged sites, located on the leading edges of clay particles and soil organic matter (humus particles). These negative charges enable the soil to prevent leaching of its positively charged nutrient cations.
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Laterization
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A process common to soils found in humid environments in the tropical and subtropical regions in which weathering rock is transformed to laterite.
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Calcification
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A process that occurs when evaporation and water uptake by plants exceeds precipitation which results in the upward movement of dissolved alkaline salts, typically CaCO3, from the groundwater.
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Salinization
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A process that functions similarly to calcification, only in much drier climates.
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Podzolization
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A process that occurs in cool, moist climates where coniferous vegetation dominates and creates strongly acidic conditions. This enhances leaching, causing the movement of cations.
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Gleization
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A process that occurs in regions with high rainfall or low-lying areas associated with poor drainage. The constantly wet conditions slow the breakdown of organic matter by decomposers, allowing matter to accumulate in upper layers of the soil which releases organic acis that react with iron in the soil, giving the soil a black to bluish-gray color.
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How has the warming earth affected animal behavior?
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Of the 434 species in California 4/5 had moved northward and 1/5 southward. Birds have been nesting about 10 days earlier. Mountain animal populations have moved up the mountains into cooler climates.
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How has the warming earth affect animal size?
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Animals have begun to produce smaller offspring because they are better able to cool themselves because of their high surface area to mass ratio.
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Effects of Global Warming
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1. Climate shifts and unusual weather (floods, droughts, reduced stream flow).
2. Displacement of Agriculture 3. Disruption of Natural Vegetation 4. Melting of Polar Ice and Sea Level Rise |
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"Gaia" Concept of James Lovelock
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Describes the Earth as a superorganism that self regulates. Sediments are flushed into the oceans by melting glaciers. This allows an explosion in marine population which pulls CO2 out of the atmosphere. This causes the Earth to cool off and reform glaciers while the marine populations decrease because of competition. The decrease in marine populations decreases the amount of CO2 being pulled from the atmosphere and the Earth begins to warm again.
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How Green are Biofuels
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Many biofuels are associated with lower greenhouse emissions but have greater aggregate environmental costs than gasoline. Solar energy seems to be the best alternative along with conservation.
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What are the effects of humans cultivating the land for agriculture?
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It has disrupted the soil and its nutrient deposits because of misuse of the soil by poor or greedy techniques.
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What has building dams in rivers caused?
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Has caused disruption in the soil because salmon, which bring N and other nutrients, are unable to move upstream past the dam. This has decreased not only the N and other nutrients in the stream but also droppings of bears in the woods that eat the salmon.
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Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest Experiment
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A valley was picked out and the stream was damned an samples were taken from the water for nutrient measurement. A logging company came in an cut down the trees of the valley, which caused all of the nutrients to run into the river below. The nutrients washed away will never be replaced.
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Law of the Minimum
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"...growth of a plant is dependent on the amount of foodstuff which is presented to it in minimum quality, relative to its needs." - Justus Von Liebig
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What are the usual limiting factors of plant growth?
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Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium which usually cause the loss of yield potential.
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Factor Interactions
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1. Synergism (the interaction of elements that when combined produce a total effect that is greater than the sum of the individual elements, contributions, etc.)
2. Antagonism (one factor lowers yields of another factor) 3. Substitution (organisms can substitute one factor for another). |
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Can too much of a factor limit the growth?
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Yes.
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Law of Tolerance
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Victor Shelford (1913)
The range of values or concentrations of substances in which organisms can survive. If taken out of this range, they won't survive. |
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Subsidary Principles of Limiting Factors
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1. Organisms may have wide tolerances to some factors and narrow tolerances to others.
2. Organisms with the widest tolerances are the most widespread. 3. When one factor is below optimum it may reduce tolerance to other factors. 4. Tolerances may vary geographically and seasonally. 5. Organisms seldom live at the optimum of any one factor. 6. Reproductives (reproductive products) generally have the narrowest tolerances. |
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Eury-
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Wide range of tolerance.
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Steno-
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Narrow range of tolerance.
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Why do antarctic fish lack hemoglobin?
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They don't move much or often and the water is cold and saturated with O2; the amount of O2 they do need is able to diffuse through methods other than red blood cells.
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Antarctic Icefish
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Very stenothermic and very cold tolerance.
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Trout
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Relatively stenothermic and cold tolerance.
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Carp
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Very eurythermic and wide tolerance range.
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Tropical Fish
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Relatively stenothermic and hot tolerance.
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Oxygen content of atmosphere.
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210,000 ppm.
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Oxygen content of water.
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14 ppm. A liter of air holds 40x the amount of O2 of a liter of water.
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Tiger Beetle Requirements for Reproductions
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Victor Shelford
1. Moist Soil 2. Warm Soil 3. Reduced Light 4. Porous/Sandy Soil 5. Sloped site; well-drained |
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H.G. Andrewartha
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Studied grasshoppers of Australia. During dry years, the grasshoppers moved into wetter forest. During wet years, the grasshoppers moved into the desert. Thus, the movement corresponded to rainfall. It made sense that they'd move to desert when it was wet because the desert had more vegetation but it didn't make sense that they'd not move into the forest when food was available all the time. Andrewartha finally concluded that fungal diseases that occurred in particularly moist areas killed the grasshoppers. Thus, the grasshoppers stayed out of the forest during normal and wet years bu moved in during drier times when the fungus wasn't present.
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Wireworms
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Worms that burrowed into sugar beets. Larvae have very narrow range of moisture tolerance. Areas covered with grass the years before caused extreme moisture uptake by grass that created an environment too dry for larvae. They also found that if they saturated the soil every 2 weeks rather than spray irrigating multiple times a week created an environment too moist for larvae.
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Temperature as a Physical Factor
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Range of tolerance for most organisms on Earth is 0 - 90 degrees Celsius. Extremophiles: -2 - 120 degrees Celsius.
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Adjustments to Temperature
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1. Acclimitization: an adjustment an individual makes in nature
2. Acclimation: an adjustment an individual makes in the laboratory 3. Adaptation: an adjustment a population makes, its genetic and irreversible |
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F.E.J Fry
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Worked with goldfish to find temperatures that affected the speed and stamina of goldfish. He also established a graph for the lethal limits of change in the water temperature for goldfish. The warmer the temperature the fish are in, the high the lower limit for the water they can survive in. The colder the water, the lower the upper limit for the water they can survive in.
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Lethal Effects of Temperature
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1. Lethal Effects (Range of Tolerance)
2. Location (temperature preference) 3. Development Speed (metabolism) 4. Rate of Movement (muscular contraction) |
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Salmon Mortalities
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Proximate Causes:
a. Oxygen Depletions b. Viral Diseases Ultimate Causes: a. Rising Stream Temperature |
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Moisture or Water as a Physical Factor
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Most animals must maintain a water content around 60 -75% of body mass.
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Marine Fish
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Isotonic with seawater (no osmotic movement)
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Freshwater Fish
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Isotonic with seawater but freshwater is hypotonic, thus water rushes in. These animals have mechanisms to rid themselves of excess water.
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Grain Insects
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These insects do not need free-standing water, they get water from their diet.
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Dipodomys
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AKA - Kangaroo Rat. Lives on dry soy bean seeds solely with no need for free-standing water. Doesn't sweat; cools behaviorally by coming out at night and burrows during the day. Has special nasal cavities that are used to remove excess water from breaths. Can only stand to lose about 1% of water by weight before they expire.
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Camals
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Can lose about 30% of water by weight without expiration. Can live for 5 days without water during the summer. Can live for about 20 days without water during the winter. Can drink solely seawater if needed. Sweats. Little urination very infrequently. Has symbiotic bacteria that breaks down urea products into proteins for reuse.
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Expressing Humidity
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1. Relative Humidity: % of water that could be held vs. how much there actually is
2. Absolute Humidity: Actual weight of water in a volume of air 3. Evaporation Rate: Evaporation from a surface under standard conditions. Takes into account temperature, pressure, wind speed, and relative humidity |
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Tribolium Experiment
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Flour beetles. They prefer dry air almost every time because:
1. They already have mechanisms to survive in that environment. 2. They prefer food sources that are not disturbed by fungus or bacteria (food is too dry for these organisms to grow) However, when starved for six days, two groups of beetles were released into the same Y apparatus: 1. One group was released into the apparatus and went into the moist air (They absorbed water from air.) 2. One group was allowed to eat oven dried flour (no moisture) and then were released and went to dry air (they manufactured it from the food). |
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Three Methods of Water Intake
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1. Alimentary Canal (drinking)[mammals, insects, birds, amphibians, and reptiles]
2. Integument (through skin) 3. Metabolic Processes (metabolizing food into water) |
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Organisms with Water Rich Diets
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Adult flea, mosquitoes, bats, and butterflies.
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Methods of Water Loss
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1. Excretion and egestion
2. Respiration 3. Integument |
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Currents in Air and Water as Physical Factors
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1. Affect distribution of nutrients and gases
2. Affect drying rates in air 3. Affect behavior and movement 4. Influence body shape and growth forms |
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Weather Vaning
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The process by which wind affects the shape of landscapes and vegetation.
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Barometric and Hydrostatic Pressure
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1. Weather forecasting
2. 1000 A of pressure at great depths (life is slow, no gas spaces in body) |
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Atmospheric Gases
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1. Uniform and constant in atmosphere
2. Variable in aquatic systems. |
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Light as an Ecological Factor
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1. Energy base through photosynthesis.
2. Vision and behavior. 3. Clock and calendar. |
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Microclimates and Microenvironment
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May vary considerably from the "macroenvironment" measured by humans in standard meteorological areas.
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