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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ecology
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The study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms. -Charles Krebs (1972)
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Levels of organization in biology
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Molecule-->Cell-->Tissue-->Organ-->Organism-->Population-->Community-->Ecosystem-->Biosphere
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Population
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A group of interbreeding individuals in a particular area (spatial) at a particular time (temporal).
-Populations have both spatial and temporal elements |
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Community
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Populations of organisms in a particular area (spatial) at a particular time (temporal)
-communities have temporal, spatial, and taxonomic elements. |
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Ecosystem
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Living and nonliving elements- nutrients, soil conditions, precipitation, etc.
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Landscape
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=Biosphere
-Grouping of ecosystems and processes that occur at that level. |
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Serotonin in grasshoppers
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smell and sight of other grasshoppers raises the serotonin levels which causes a morphological change and swarming
-this is an example of why studying levels above the individual is important for studying a single level of organization correctly. |
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Darwinian Medicine
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the application of evolutionary theory to understanding health and disease.
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Ernst Haeckel's definition of ecology
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Ernst Haeckel (1869) - "The relationships of animals and their environment".
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Andrewartha's definition of ecology
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Andrewartha (1961)
"The study of the distribution and abundance of organisms" |
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Krebs' definition of ecology
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Charles Krebs (1972)
-"The study of interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms". -this definition brings in cause & effect discipline to the study of ecology |
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Aristotle
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(4th century BC)
-he observed that mice were outstripping their controls (humans, foxes, ferrets) |
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Graunt
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(1660's)
-"The Father of Demography"-he wanted census' to be more thorough(ex. births, deaths age structure of city, to determine what social services would be needed) |
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Leeunwenhoek
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predicted population sizes by looking at reproductive rates.
-studied carrion flies-in 3 months at max reproduction 2-->746,500 -he realized that there is a control in place controlling the number of offspring. |
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Cowles
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Founder of Dynamic Ecology
-He studied ecological succession at sand dunes at Lake Michigan evidence showing ecological succession of vegetation and soil relative to age. |
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Malthus, Lyell, Darwin
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(1700-1800)
The idea of "Balance of Living Organisms" -later, it was recognized that everything isn't balanced; extinctions occur, and disease, competition, and limited resources are very important. |
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Uniformitism
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Processes that maintain our planet's surface over time (ex. volcanic eruptions and meteors shape the earth, even after earth has formed)
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Teddy Roosevelt
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Caused a major idealogical shift in the 1900's.
-He realized that the landscape was vanishing as well as some organisms (bison, parakeet, passenger pigeon) |
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Leopold
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Aldo Leopold (1920-1940)
-"The father of the study of wildlife management" -He realized that commercial and agricultural practices were starting to affect game populations. |
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Environmentalism vs Ecology
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Environmentalism- The human impact on natural resources
Ecology- All kingdoms/All organisms' effect on resources -Ecology provides a theoretical basis for environmental studies |
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"Fragile Planet"
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after the Cuyahoga River caught on fire from industrial waste (1969) and Minamata Disease (mercury poisoning, 1950's-1960's), we began to realize that nature is very limited (after seeing earth from space)
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Clean Air Act
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revised in 1963, 1967, 1970, and 1977
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Clean Water Act
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Established in 1972
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Proximate Causation
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Internal to organism or something in limited environment(day length, hormone levels, amt fat storage, reduction of food resources.)
-Ex.- Bird Migration |
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Ultimate Causation
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Reproduction
(birds that fly south are more reproductively successful) |
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Migration
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-An Ultimate Causationa
In the past, birds that fly south are more reproductively successful. |
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Infanticide
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Results in more reproductive success for the harem male.
-Females come to estrus more quickly, this makes the males that are performing the infanticide more reproductively successful. |
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Finch Bill Size
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geographical isolation leads to radiation(specialization) into empty niches(open resources).
-Results in a change in morphology (ex rheas of S America, Cichlids of Lake Malawi) |
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Evolution
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Change in gene frequency in a population over time.
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Mechanisms of Evolution
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Natural Selection, Artificial Selection, Genetic Drift
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Natural Selection
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Differential reproduction(some individuals reproduce more than others) in a population over time. (The environment determines the adaptive traits)
-Conditions necessary for Natural Selection: Genetic Variation, Genetic Inheritance, Competition |
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Artificial Selection
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man determines the adaptive traits (ex. cows were fatter in the 1950's, now man has selected for leaner cows)
(ex 2- Strawberry Sizes) |
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Genetic Drift
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Chance events occurring that result in changes in gene frequency
(ex. different facial features among different populations) -Genetic Drift occurs in small & isolated populations, b/c change affects them more profoundly |
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Components Required for Natural Selection
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1)Genetic Variation(if all individuals have same genes, nat selection cant occur)
2)Genetic Inheritance(offspring resembles parents) 3)Competition(not every organism reproduces to its full capacity) |
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Types of Natural and Artificial Selection:
-Directional -Disruptive -Stabilizing |
Directional-occurs when individuals at one extreme reproduce more (individuals at other end can be selected against)
(ex. Widowbird males with longer tails are preferred by females[sexual selection also]) (ex.2 galapagos bill sizes change per food source) -Disruptive-when individuals with mean variation are selcted against-result is bimodal distribution (ex.Snow and blue geese sometime mate to form a "model" form, this model form doesnt reproduce as well as the other two, this may cause speciation.) -Stabilizing-individuals at both extremes of variation are selected against, result is an increase of individuals at the mean. (ex.human birth-small babies have a higher mortality rate, larger babies also have a higher mortality rate) |
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Varied Environments
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?
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Heterosis(Sickle Cell Trait)
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-An autosomal recessive disease, carriers of the sickle cell trait have some resistance to malaria, although homozygotes are problematic
Heterosis-A genetically superior offspring due to the blending of its parents genes |
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Cystic Fibrosis
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causes an increase in hyaluronic acid production which helps isolate pathogens in the lungs. This gives some resistance to Mycobacterium Tuberculosis in the heterozygotes, although the homozygotes are problematic.
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Fitness, Inclusive Fitness
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Darwinian Fitness-An individual's reproductive success
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Components Required for Natural Selection
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1)Genetic Variation(if all individuals have same genes, nat selection cant occur)
2)Genetic Inheritance(offspring resembles parents) 3)Competition(not every organism reproduces to its full capacity) |
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Types of Natural and Artificial Selection:
-Directional -Disruptive -Stabilizing |
Directional-occurs when individuals at one extreme reproduce more (individuals at other end can be selected against)
(ex. Widowbird males with longer tails are preferred by females[sexual selection also]) (ex.2 galapagos bill sizes change per food source) -Disruptive-when individuals with mean variation are selcted against-result is bimodal distribution (ex.Snow and blue geese sometime mate to form a "model" form, this model form doesnt reproduce as well as the other two, this may cause speciation.) -Stabilizing-individuals at both extremes of variation are selected against, result is an increase of individuals at the mean. (ex.human birth-small babies have a higher mortality rate, larger babies also have a higher mortality rate) |
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Varied Environments
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Organisms will seem to "fit" their environment (ex. Peppered Moths are most common and match lichen on trees. When pollution killed the lichen, The rare Carbonaria moth became the most common form b/c it matched trees with no lichen)
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Heterosis(Sickle Cell Trait)
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-An autosomal recessive disease, carriers of the sickle cell trait have some resistance to malaria, although homozygotes are problematic
Heterosis-A genetically superior offspring due to the blending of its parents genes |
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Cystic Fibrosis
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causes an increase in hyaluronic acid production which helps isolate pathogens in the lungs. This gives some resistance to Mycobacterium Tuberculosis in the heterozygotes, although the homozygotes are problematic.
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Adaptations are constrained by?
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-Mutations in Genetic Flow
-Change in Environment -Genes present in the population -Historical Constraints -Whole Phenotypes |
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Fitness, inclusive fitness
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Darwinian Fitness-An individual's reproductive success.
Total/Inclusive Fitness-Darwinian Fitness + copies of genes from relatives ("you have more genes in common with your sibling than your cousin") |
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Currency of costs and benefits
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Consequences of natural selection
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-Antibiotic Resistance to Bacteria
-Salt tolerance in Plants -Pesticide Resisitance in Insects and Weeds -Drug Resistance in Plasmodium |
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Coevolution
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looking at two different species to see how they change overtime together.
-(monarch butterflies eat milkweed and incorporate the toxin into their adult form, this prevents bluejays from eating more than one monarch, after they've tasted the first they'll never eat them again) |
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Adaptive Landscape
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genes can get "better" through adaptation, but those genes can never be "best" b/c they're constrained by the genes that are available
(ex. You'll never see a winged horse) |
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Red Queen Hypothesis
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although both organisms are constantly evolving, their predator/prey relationship remains the same.
"Running as fast as we can to stay in the same place" (ex. bats feed via echolocation, moths have coevolved to hear the bats and orient their bodies sideways, now bats have coevolved to increase their echo frequency, etc...) |
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Gametic Selection
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The trait is determined at the level of the gamete.
(ex. sperm mobility may be under strong selection) (ex. 2- Plant pollen grains that produce a faster-growing pollen have a better chance of fertilizing an egg.) |
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Individual Selection
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=Darwinian Selection
-Trait is displayed as a whole phenotype (most common level of selection) |
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Kin Selection
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=Gene Selection
results in an increase in reproductive success 1)through offspring, or 2)through relatives offspring (kin selection explains the existence of altruistic behavior) |
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Batesian Mimicry
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Nontoxic species mimics the toxic species
(ex. corral/king snakes & some butterflies) |
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Mullerian Mimicry
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Multiple toxic species resemble each other, "Strengthening the Signal"
(ex. hymenopterans) |
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Group Selection
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Level of adaptation that occurs at group, not at individual's level
-Winn Edwards(1960) came up with the idea of group selection -G. Williams(1966)refuted the idea of group selection-selfish individuals will always overshadow the groupselected trait |
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Winn-Edwards
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Came up with the idea of group selection
-He said group traits will increase at the expense of the individual's fitness if these two conditions are met: 1)group is isolated 2)high relatedness |
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Multi-Level Selection Hypothesis
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-David Sloan Wilson
-Refers to two levels of selection occurring: 1) Within the group, competition that acts against the cooperators 2)competition between the groups that favors the cooperators (ex. Group Selection Study) |
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What does evolution through natural selection help us explain?
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Natural Selection helps us explain how organisms "fit" their environment
-this is why living species sometimes resemble extant species(ex. amaradillos & their extinct look a likes) |
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Factors That Affect Distribution
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-Dispersal
-Habitat Selection -Climate |
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Transplant Experiments
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Move a plant from an area that it normally grows in and transplant it to an area that it could potentially grow in to see if it grows and reproduces.
-if growth is (+) why aren't those organisms there naturally? 1)Could be a dispersal issue. 2)Could be due to habitat selection. -If growth is (-) it could be due to: 1)climate/inhospitable conditions 2)large amount of predators 3)large amount of competitors 4) low amounts of mutualists 5)resources "not right" |
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Liebig's Law of Minimum
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"Processes are limited by resources or material found in the least amount relative to their need."
-Liebig made the connection between Chemistry and Biology (ex. Plants+N2=Growth) -Liebig's ideas were considered too simplistic |
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Shelford's Law of Tolerance
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"Distribution of a species will be controlled by that environmental factor for which the species has the narrowest range of tolerance."
-The more complex the process, the smaller the window of ideal conditions (Be sure to go back and draw out the model) |
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4 Complexities When Considering Tolerances:
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1)Acclimitization-(ex.Goldfish)(caution-some organisms do not acclimate)
2)Variation of tolerances depends on development(larvae do not equal adult) 3)Behavioral Traits (ex hibernation, sun basking) 4)Tolerances can change through the process of Natural Selection(ex. metal/salt tolerances) |
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The 3 types of Dispersal:
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-Natural Dispersal-no involvement by humans(ex.cattle egrets of Africa following large cows..they were blown to N.&S. America
via storm, now they fill an empty niche) -Accidental Dispersal-Involves humans, only accidentally occurred. Happens most commonly via balast water(sea lamprey, zebra mussels in the Great Lakes) -Intentional Dispersal-involves humans intentionally dispersing. (ex.Kudzu for use in erosion control and cattle feed)(ex.2-Dung Beetles for use in getting rid of cattle feces) |
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Patterns of Dispersal:
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Diffusion-movement from higher concentration to lower concentration
Jump-Movement through inhospitable area without colonization. Secular-gradual movement into neighboring habitat.(secular dispersal requires genetic change which allows for more dispersal) |
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Reid's Model of Dispersal
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Total Distance moved=Ave Dispersal Dist x n(generations passed) x square root of ln x Ro(reproduction rate)
See Notes for Equation!!! (01/31/11) |
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Reid's Paradox
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"Random, rare dispersal events have a huge impact on the model of dispersal"
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Ten's Rule
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-1/10 of the organisms that are imported get introduced
-1/10 of the introduced get established -1/10 of the established become pests |
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Characteristics Important for Successful Dispersal:
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(Ex. Milkweed Bugs in Temperate vs Tropical)
-improved flight ability (larger wing size) -delay reproduction until warmer weather -more body reserves |
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Phylogeny
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The study of movements of organisms over evolutionary time
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Natural Experiments-Krakatau Island Eruption
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-Krakatau Island Eruption(1883)-The island disappeared and two nearby islands were wiped of all life. The 1st animal to reintroduce was a spider 9 months after explosion. After 3 yrs there were 26 species of plants, after 10 yrs there were coconut trees, and after 25 yrs there were 263 species of animals.
-All organisms were introduce via flight, rafts, or floats |
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Natural Experiments-Mt St Helens Eruption
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-(1980)-everything was killed. After 20 yrs, 95 species of plants were reintroduced; this was 3x less than neighboring islands, so why was there limited movement?
-There's a tradeoff between seed size and successfulness. |
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Island Dispersal Trends:
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Island Disperal Occurs Via:
-Wind blown mechanisms -Floating Mechanisms (coconuts) -Attachment Organs/Structures |
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Adaptations Suggesting Dispersal is Under Selection
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Adaptations Suggesting Dispersal is not Under Selection
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Advantages to dispersing
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When an environment is unpredictable
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Disadvantages to Dispersing
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When an environment is predictable
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Advantages to Dispersing
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-Prevention of Interbreeding
-Potential for reproduction in an "open" habitat |
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Disadvantages to Dispersing
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-Lack of Familiarity
-Increased risk that reproductive success might not occur -Increased risk of predation |
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When is it adaptive to Disperse?
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-When your environment is unpredictable
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Sex-Biased Dispersal
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-Takes place to help avoid interbreeding within a population.
-Kin directed behavior will occur in the sex that remains in the original population |
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Inbreeding
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-A reason that dispersal can occur in a predictable environment(to prevent inbreeding)
-Habsburg Lip is an example of traits acquired through inbreeding |
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Habitat Selection
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-An animal phenomenon
-like dispersal, habitat selection can also determine distribution |
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Taxis
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-Attraction or Repulsion due to a stimulus(+ or -)
(ex. Bowfly larvae live in bird nests where they use positive phototaxis to find hatchling birds to attach onto. Once attached, they use negative phototaxis to hide from the mother bird) |
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Photo-
Geo- Chemo- |
All root words for types of taxis.
-Phototaxis-involves light stimulus -Geotaxis-Involves gravity stimulus -Chemotaxis-Involves chemical stimulus |
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Types of behavior that can affect habitat selection
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-Foraging/Predation behavior (Red hawks perch, Ferruginous hawks soar)
-Mating Behavior (one pipet species ends courtship dance by jumping onto branch, another pipet species doesnt jump onto branch at end;the species that doesnt can be found in areas where there are no branches) -Predator Avoidance Behavior (ex. Pocket mice move quickly to brush to hide) (ex. 2-Kangaroo Rats leap away from predators w/ large eyes pointed upward) |
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Why is lag time important in the discussion of habitat selection?
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Habitat Quality is Determined by:
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-in order to determine the quality of a habitat, you must consider both the resources and the competing organisms
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Model of Habitat Selection based on Habitat Quality
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-the model is used the same way a chemist uses a controlled environment to run an experiment, so that the ecologist can get to the "bare bones" of what's being studied.
(mathematical models which include equations and variables are also used) |
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Ideal Free Distribution
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"Equal Access To Resources"
-organisms distribute themselves into equal access to resources. -Milinski proved equal access to resources with his stickle-back fish research( the fish swam and separated themselves out in equal distributions to the fish food) |
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Ideal Despotic Distribution
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"Best quality individuals hold or sequester the best quality habitat; they do not display IFD(Ideal Free Distribution)
-as a result, you will see subordinate individuals in poorer habitats(less RS) |
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Predation's Affects on Distribution
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predation can affect distribution, but you must meet the following criteria to determine this: 1)the exclusion of the predator in the environment causes an increase in the prey, 2)you must witness the predator eating the prey, 3)you should see a negative correlation between the predator and the prey, 4)if you transplant prey into an area without doing anything to the predators, the predators should wipe them out
(ex.After foxes moved in, the rock wallabee had a more restricted distribution) |
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Elements Necessary to Assume Predation:
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1)The exclusion of the predator in the environment causes an increase in the prey
2)you must witness the predator actually eating the prey 3)You should see a negative correlation between the predator and the prey 4)If you transplant the prey into the environment without removing the predator, the predator should wipe out the prey |
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Disease/Parasitism
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-The Parasite is the benefitted(+) individual in this relationship
-The Host is the non-benefitted (-) individual in this relationship -Parasitism can affect the distribution of hosts (ex. Hawaii's exotic birds occupy the lowlands, however the native birds occupy the highlands only b/c they cannot survive the mosquitoes that carry malaria in the lowlands) |
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Vector, Host, Allelopathy
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Allelopathy-One organism produces a toxin to prevent other organisms from getting into the area.
(ex. Vector/Host- Malaria- The mosquitoe is the vector, the hawaiin native bird is the host) (ex.Sage prevents grass from growing) |
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Interspecific Competition
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Competition between different species
-closely related species compete more than distantly related species -result is a "checkerboard" distribution of the two species |
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Exploitative Competition
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Competition b/w different species, does not involve fighting, the two diff species compete by seeing how fact they can access the resource.
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Interference Competition
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Interference Competition
-Competition b/w different species which involves direct fighting b/w the species over the resource; result is one of the species being kept from the resource by the other species. |
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Climatic Conditions Affecting Distribution
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-Temperature
-Precipitation |
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Whittaker's Biomes
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Whittaker looked at rainfall, temperature, and plant communities; he found characteristics that help plants live in extreme climatic conditions.
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Characteristics of some Plants that help them live in areas with low precipitation:
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-low SA/V ratio(big,round) as well as a waxy cuticle to help retain water(ex.cactus)
-Long tap roots (150ft down) to hit groundwater -small leaves for releasing heat as well as silver leaf coloring for reflecting light. |
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Characteristics of some plants which help them live in cold temperatures:
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-lose leaves and go dormant for the cold portion of the year
-flowers have cup-like parts that folow the sun across the sky when it's cold(b/c the reproductive parts are inside the cup) -heat production (skunk cabbage) |
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Characteristics of some plants that help them live in ares with high precipitation:
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(water runoff leaves) |
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Adaptations that help animals survive cold temperatures:
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-Dormancy (a decrease in activity)
-Fur, Feathers, Layers of Fat |
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Allen's Rule
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Extremity size seems to decrease with decreasing temperature
-results in a reduction of SA/V ratio |
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Bergmann's Rule
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Body size is larger in colder climates
(ex. whitetail deer in Michigan are much larger than whitetail's in Nicaragua) |
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Ecotypes
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Genetic variants of the same species; they resemble their environments
(ex.Rat Snakes are different phenotypically) |
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Examples of plants that are affected by disease:
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-Lg American Chestnut (chestnut blight destroyed trees)
-Dutch Elm Disease Killed American Elms(it's a fungus brought over by beetles) -Black Oak (fungus spread from root to rest of tree) |
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Natural Selection Explains:
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1)Regional Differences when organisms fill the same niche
2)Exant Organisms Resemble Extinct 3)Organisms seem to fit their environment 4)sexual selection (to reproduce more) |
