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96 Cards in this Set
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What are the factors that can influence eating behaviour/ attitudes to food (AO1)? |
Media effects Mood Socioeconomic Class |
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Explain media effects on eating behaviour |
Maclntyre- states media has a major impact on both what people eat, and their attitudes to certain foods. This could be explained in terms of social learning theory as its role is clearly seen in the impact of television and magazines on attitudes to food e.g. young girls see thin models on magazine covers and think they should eat less to look like them HOWEVER eating behaviours are limited by personal circumstances e.g. age, income, family circumstances |
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What study supports these findings? |
Stice- longitudinal study- randomly assigned 219 teen girls to 15 month fashion magazine. -Found there were no effects like dieting, bulimic symptoms or body dissatisfaction after long term exposure to thin images HOWEVER found that vulnerable adolescents were adversely affected by the images- suggesting exposure to idealised images has lasting negative affects |
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What other study supports Stice's findings? |
Jones- found media doesn't influence everyone in the same way- those with low self-esteem are more likely to compare themselves to images portrayed in the media---> therefore it is more likely to have negative effects on their eating behaviour |
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What is another supporting study for media effects on eating behaviour? |
Becker- Looked at attitudes to eating behaviour in adolescent Fijian girls following the introduction of TV in 1995. Found that disordered eating significantly increased after exposure to TV- girls reported wanting to lose weight to look like TV characters --> supports idea that media influence eating attitudes |
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Explain how mood can effect attitudes to food |
-Food acts as temporary escape from negative moods such as sadness or anxiety -Self-monitoring studies have shown that one hour before a binge, bulimic individuals had a more negative mood state than one hour before a normal snack or meal -The same relationship between low mood and binge eating holds for sub-clinical populations (below the threshold for clinical diagnosis) |
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Give a study that supports mood's influence on eating behaviour |
Wegner- Had students record their eating patterns and mood states over 2 weeks. Binge days were characterised by generally low moods compared to non-binge days--> showing a low mood can lead us to eat more HOWEVER there was no difference in mood before and after a binge, suggesting although low-mood increases likelihood of binge-eatinf, it does not alleviate low mood state |
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Give another study that further supports the influence of mood on eating behaviour |
Garg- Observed food choices in 38 participants as they watched either an upbeat, funny film or a sad film. P's offered popcorn and grapes throughout films. -Those watching the sad film consumed 36% more popcorn than those watching the upbeat film, but the upbeat group ate far more grapes than the other group |
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Explain Garg's findings |
-Bc those who feel sad or depressed want to jolt themselves out of the negative mood state--> more likely to eat food that tastes good and is high in sugar to give them a rush of euphoria -Happy people want to extend their good mood so eat healthy foods -HOWEVER when participants were presented with nutritional information of the foods prior to viewing, consumption of the unhealthy foods dropped dramatically |
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What is a RWA for Garg's findings? |
-When we are in a low mood and want to comfort eat we should check the nutritional information of our foods first -Also should be taken into consideration in treatment for obesity- provide patients with healthy alternatives to raise their mood rather than eating e.g. exercise as this also releases endorphins, the same as eating chocolate does |
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What is the 3rd factor that can effect eating behaviour? |
Socioeconomic class- studies found that body dissatisfaction, dieting behaviour and eating disorders are more common in higher-class individuals |
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What did Dornbusch find that supports |
Surveyed 7000 american adolescents and found higher-class females had a greater desire to be thin, and were more likely to diet to achieve this than their lower-class counterparts |
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What is a study that further supports this? |
Goode- income was positively associated with healthy eating in Scotland -could be because healthier foods are more expensive than fast, or pre-prepared food HOWEVER this is only a correlation and does not cause causation |
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What is a RWA for these findings? |
Make healthy food cheaper and more accessible to those in a lower socioeconomic class |
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What is a refuting study for the effects of socioeconomic class on eating behaviour? |
Story- found in a sample of American students higher social class was related to greater satisfaction with weight and lower rates of weight control behaviours e.g. vomiting |
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What are IDA points for this research? |
Gender bias- most studies conducted on women (estrocentric)--> can't generalise to men Culture bias- only looks at western cultures- diff. cultures have different eating habits in respect to what, when and how much, as well as religion E.g. Chinese meal times are communal, as they share larger dished between them- its considered rude to eat alone |
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What are the 3 AO1 points for success and failure of dieting? |
Restraint Theory Denial Theory Detail Theory |
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Explain the restraint theory as an explanation for the failure of diets |
Herman and Polivy- proposed Boundary theory -Those who diet have higher satiety threshold than people who eat normally as have been starving themselves- so takes more food to make them feel full -Also have larger range between hunger and satiety so takes longer to feel hungry and more food to satisfy -Research has found dieters salivate more when they think about food, showing that they have higher satiety level |
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What study supports the restraint theory? |
Wardle and Beales- 7 obese women put into diet group, exercise group or non-treatment group (control) for 7 weeks - In 4th week P's given preload snack- assessed food intake -In 6th week tested food intake under stressful conditions -Restrained eaters ate more than the non-restrained, and the non-treatment group ate less than the other groups |
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What is a negative point of this study? |
-Hard to prove cause and effect; can't prove calorie restraint of diet/ exercise caused them to eat more food and therefore fail their diet -Small sample size + estrocentric meaning it is hard to generalise to the rest of the population |
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What is a real world application for these findings? |
People diagnosed with obesity shouldn't be put on extremely restrictive diets as treatment as this will lead to overeating |
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What is a further problem with the restraint theory? |
Doesn't explain anorexia- suffered are able to restrict to the point of illness |
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Explain denial theory as an explanation for the failure of dieting? |
Wegner- proposed 'Theory of Ironic Processes' -If you deny yourself food you will think about it more |
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What study supports denial theory? |
Soetens- p's divided into restrained and unrestrained eaters. Restrained eaters subdivided into groups with high or low disinhibition - The high disinhibition group used more thought suppression than the other groups and also showed a rebound effect; they thought about food more and therefore ate more HOWEVER this is unfalsifiable as hard to measure thoughts and it relies on self-awareness and self-report |
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What theory refutes this? |
Morewedge- found when asked p's to imagine eating food in detail they're less likely to eat it later |
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Explain Detail theory as an explanation for the success of dieting |
People tend to get bored of routine, if diet is all the same and very repetitive but by focusing on the individual elements of a diet to make it more interesting and help the person enjoy the meal more |
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What study supports detail theory? |
Redden- looked at 'Specificity effect' -p's given jelly beans with either a number with each bean, or an interesting description of each bean -Those given descriptions got less bored of eating them- shows high detail diets are less boring therefore people more likely to stick to them -HOWEVER only looks at one, novelty food- not representative of a diet |
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What is a RWA for these findings? |
If people want to eat and enjoy salad more then its contents should be described in detail---> people will be more likely to maintain diet |
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What other study supports detail theory? |
Kahn and Wasink- perceived variety produced ann increase in quantity of consumption because they are less able to monitor consumption--> supports Redden's findings that people will eat more of their given diet if there is more variety HOWEVER could have adverse effects on dieting as people may eat more unhealthy foods |
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What are IDA points for this research? |
Determinism- ignores genetic influence on success and failure of dieting- e.g. LPL enzyme produced by fat cells- make it easier to regain lost weight- so if have lots of LPL due to genetics you will be more likely to gain weight- appearing as failing the diet Ethics- Ogden: restraint has many negative consequences such as lowered mood and overeating. If restraint is detrimental to both psychological and physical health of a normal weight individual, it should not be recommended as a solution to the obese |
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What are the 3 AO1 points for neural mechanisms involved in controlling eating behaviour? |
Hypothalamus Neurotransmitters Damage to amygdala |
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Explain the role of the hypothalamus in eating behaviour |
Plays key role in eating behaviour. Centre for homeostasis- maintenance of constant internal environment. -2 main areas linked to eating behaviour: lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) -LH: detects low blood glucose and homeostatic mechanisms kick in to restore equilibrium by inducing hunger - VMH: detects his blood glucose and homeostatic mechanisms to restore blood glucose levels to normal- by inducing feeling of satiety |
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What studies support the role of the hypothalamus in eating behaviour? |
Ranson- lesioned VMH in rats- found they ate continuously (hyperphagia) and became morbidly obese. However when lesioned LH found this lead to no eating (aphagia) Jennings- found when stimulated LH they ate continuously until the stimulation stopped--> supporting it's role in eating behaviour |
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What are refuting studies for the role of the hypothalamus in controlling eating behaviour? |
Sakurai- argued that although LH is involved in eating it isn't the eating centre as proposed, but instead the neural circuits than run through the brain control it -Lesions unreliable as also affect other parts of the brain; Gold- found lesioning the VMH alone doesn't cause hyperphagia- suggests its due to damage to other parts of the brain, specifically the paraventricular nucleus |
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Explain the role of neurotransmitters in controlling eating behaviour? |
Neurotransmitters= chemicals produced in brain that affect out bodily behaviour 2 main ones involved in eating behaviour: Ghrelin and Leptin |
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Explain the role of Ghrelin in eating behaviour |
-Made in the CNS (in hypothalamus)- released into empty stomach to induce feeding -Also released in response to stress in order to reduce anxious and depressive behaviours and boost appetite |
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What study supports the role of ghrelin in eating behaviour? |
Cummings- ghrelin levels high before lunch and low after lunch- supporting like between gherkin and food consumption |
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What would be a RWA for Cummings' findings? |
Treatment for obesity- block respond to gherkin therefore reducing appetite meaning patients would eat less and lose weight---> HOWEVER this would also cancel out the positive effects of ghrelin in regard to countering stress |
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Explain the role of Leptin in controlling eating behaviour |
Produced by adipose tissue and secreted into blood stream where it travels and binds to receptors in the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus- induces satiety |
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What study supports the role of leptin in eating behaviour? |
Zhang- mice bred without gene that codes for Leptin production- they ate continuously and became morbidly obese, but when leptin injected they lost weight immediately- supports idea that leptin induced satiety |
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What would a RWA for these findings be? |
Research into obesity treatment- injections of leptin not successful but perhaps could implant cells that produce leptin instead |
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Explain how damage to the amygdala influences eating behaviour |
Causes 'Kluver-Bucy syndrome' -person is unable to distinguish between edible and non-edible food items and new or past eaten foods |
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What study supports the idea that damage to the amygdala affects eating behaviour? |
Rolls and Rolls- removed amygdala from rats- found they consumed novel and familiar food indiscriminately- shows amygdala does play role in eating behaviour |
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What is an IDA point for this research? |
Biological approach- deterministic- implies we have no free will over our eating behaviour and that its controlled solely by our genes, ignoring higher order thinking HOWEVER dieting refutes this as shows we can have free will over our eating behaviour |
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What is another IDA point? |
Reductionist- reduces eating behaviour simply down to our genetic make up and ignores environmental factors e.g. stress, upbringing -->E.g. Becker: found increase in display of abnormal eating behaviours in adolescent girls following the introduction of TV in Fiji- showing environment can also influence eating behaviour ---> calls for more holistic approach |
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What are the 4 AO1 points for evolutionary explanations for food preferences? |
Preference for eating meat Calorie needs Taste aversion (aka bait shyness) Medicine Effect |
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Explain 'preference for eating meat' |
Milton- We have evolved preference for meat and fatty foods from our ancestors bc in the EEA these would have been vital for brain growth and therefore survival -Human ancestors included meat in their diet to compensate for the decline of forests Abrams- in order for our brains to grow and develop as they have done we would've required a diet of mostly meat |
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What evidence is there supporting this theory? |
-Fossil evidence: from groups of hunter-gatherers suggests their daily diet was based primarily on animal-based foods- know this by looking at teeth and tools -Tape-worm: humans have the same tapeworm as lions, indicated that we ate the same things as them |
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What studies support this theory? |
Milton- without animals it would be unlikely early humans could have secured enough nutrients from a vegetable diet to evolve--> bc meat has amino acids, minerals and nutrients essential for brain growth |
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What is a refuting study for this? |
Cordain- our ancestors survived off food other than saturated animal fats and we had a mainly vegetarian diet
HOWEVER this is unfalsifiable as we cannot go back to EEA to see what our ancestors ate |
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Explain calorie needs as an evolutionary explanation for food preferences |
-Certain number of calories is needed per day for brain growth, cell repair and survival -In EEA calories were not as plentiful as today--> therefore humans have evolved a preference for foods rich in calories (e.g. meat) as this would have aided our ancestors' survival ---> could explain obesity |
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What study supports this? |
Gibson and Wardle- 4 and 5 year olds were given a table full of many fruits and vegetables- more likely to choose bananas and potatoes which are the most calorie-rich--> demonstrating evolved preference for high energy foods |
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What is good about this study? |
Used children which is good as they are less influenced by external factors, however they could be influenced by parenting; may make choices based on foods they're fed at home as have developed a preference for them |
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Explain taste aversion (bait shyness) |
This aided our ancestors survival as they would become nauseous after eating something harmful, meaning they would avoid it in future as they would associate it with the negative feeling (preventing them eating poisonous foods) |
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What studies support taste aversion? |
Garcia- rats made ill though radiation shortly after eating saccharin developed an aversion to it- very quickly associated their illness with it HOWEVER based on animals so can't generalise to humans as we have different neural mechanisms that control eating behaviour Webster- gave patients love;-tasting ice cream before their chemotherapy and the patients acquired an aversion to that ice cream bc they associated it with feeling nauseous |
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What are 2 RWA from this research? |
- 'Scapegoat technique' - give cancer patients novel, or already disliked foods before treatments so they don't create any aversions to their familiar foods - Farmers who have problems with rats should place read poison amongst the crops and rats will develop and aversion to the crops after it makes them ill |
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Describe the medicine effect as an evolutionary explanation for food preferences |
-If you eat something and it makes you feel better, you will associate that flavour with the positive feeling and therefore develop a preference for it. -This would've aided out ancestors chance of survival so the trait has passed onto us |
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What study supports the medicine effect? |
Garcia- gave thymine- deficient rats a novel food, shortly followed by and injection of thiamine. Found they developed a preference for that food as they associated with the feeling of getting better--> supporting medicine effect |
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What is an IDA for this research? |
Culture bias- preference for sweet food and aversion for spicy food is universal in infants. However after infancy there is a broad range of likes and dislikes. The evolved factors affecting food preferences are modified by experiences made available by our culture- meaning different cultures display different food preferences e.g. mediterranean diet = rich in veg, olives oil and fish but Swedish is high in fibre (Could also say reductionist) |
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What are the 4 AO1 points for biological explanations? |
Reproductive suppression hypothesis Neurotransmitters Neurodevelopment (problems during pregnancy; season of birth; and endogenies opioid systems) |
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Explain the Reproductive hypothesis |
Adolescent girls' desire to control there weight represents evolutionary adaptation in which ancestral girls delayed sexual maturation and pregnancy when conditions are unfavourable (e.g. lack of food) for successful reproduction |
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What points support this idea? |
-The onset of puberty its delayed in prepubescent girls with AN -Amenorrhea- typical symptom of AN- reproduction is suspended |
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What are the negative points of the reproduction suppression hypothesis? |
-Doesn't explain how these behaviours could be passed on by natural selection as they decrease fertility and often kill the individual with the condition - Also fails to explain why there are higher rates of AN in higher classes, where conditions are arguably more favourable for reproduction -->Dornbusch- studied 7000 american adolescents and found higher-class females had a greater desire to be thin and more likely to diet to achieve this -Doesn't explain why prepubescent anorexics who have no periods, still experience weight control desires, even in ages as young as 4/5 |
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What is an IDA for this research? |
Gender bias- this doesn't explain presence of anorexia in male populations- 25% of sufferers are male HOWEVER this number could be higher as men are less likely to report their condition due to the stigma surrounding males and AN |
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What is a RWA for this research? |
Give more medical and psychological support to males with AN |
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Explain the idea that neurotransmitters cause AN |
Disruption in the levels of certain neurotransmitters e.g. Serotonin and Dopamine -Causes sufferer to gain feelings of pleasure from starvation as this is thought to return the levels of neurotransmitters to normal - This leads to AN |
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What study supports this? |
Bailer- compared serotonin activity in women recovering from restricting- type and binge-purge type of AN with healthy control group -Found significantly higher serotonin activity in women recovering from binge-purge type and highest levels were in women with highest anxiety -Suggests that persistent disruption of serotonin levels leads to increased anxiety which may trigger AN |
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What study further supports Bailer's findings? |
Kaye- found SSRIs were effective in preventing relapse in recovering AN patients HOWEVER this may be bc SSRIs raise serotonin levels in brain, thereby treating depression that often accompanies AN, as anorexics eat less food therefore lowering their serotonin levels leading to depression and the continuation of AN |
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How does dopamine play a role in the development of AN? |
Known to play a part in interpretation of harm and pleasure- increase of dopamine in the part of the brain called Basal Ganglia appears to alter the way people interpret rewards -People with AN find it difficult to associate good feelings with things most people find pleasurable and instead associate good feelings with starving themselves |
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What study supports the role of dopamine in AN? |
Kaye- PET sacks to compare dopamine activity in brains of 10 women with AN and 12 healthy women -Found overactivity in dopamine receptors in Basal ganglia of those recovering from AN |
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Explain how neurodevelopment can influence development of AN |
Problems during pregnancy and birth complications may lead to brain damage caused by hypoxia which may lead to AN |
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What studies support this? |
Lindberg- found significant association between premature birth and development of AN Bulik- mothers with AN expose their offspring to 'double disadvantage'- refers to transmission of genetic vulnerability to AN and inadequate nutrition during pregnancy |
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What other aspect of neurodevelopment is thought to affect development of AN? |
Season of birth is also thought to affect chance of developing AN |
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What study supports this? |
Eagles- Individuals are more likely to be born in the spring months- thought this causes AN due to intrauterine infections during pregnancy and temperature at time of conception, as well as lack of Vitamin D HOWEVER many anorexics are born in other months so can't be the only explanation |
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What is an alternative aspect that is thought to influence development of AN? |
Been suggested that endogenous opioid systems are disturbed in patients with AN- meaning they become dependent on the opioids released as a result of starvation |
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What study supports this?
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Marrazzi- mice have a tendency to be hyperactive and anorexic in response to the opioid morphine HOWEVER conducted on mice so can't generalise to humans as opioids may have a different effect on their brains in regard to their eating behaviour |
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What is a real world application for this research? |
Apply the findings to medical insurance in USA as companies don't cover the medical costs if condition doesn't have a biological cause- this research shows AN does have biological cause- patients should receive treatment |
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What is an IDA for this research? |
Reductionist- only looks at bio approach- doesn't take into account behavioural approach or other factors such as upbringing and the influence of media E.g. Becker- Fiji |
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What are the 5 AO1 points for psychological explanations of AN? |
Cultural ideals Media influences Peer Influences Psychodynamic theory Personality Traits |
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Explain cultural ideals as an explanation of AN |
Other cultures don't place same value on thinness in women as Western cultures- AN is much more prevalent in white, western populations than non-western populations Numerous studies have reported that many teenagers are dissatisfies with their weight and have distorted body image |
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What study supports this? |
Gregory- 16% of 15-18 year old girls in the UK were currently on a diet |
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What is an IDA for this research? |
Gender bias- AN studies mainly on girls- 25% of adults suffering from AN are male Siever- homosexual men have high levels of eating disorder and dieting- therefore can't generalise Gregory's findings |
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What study further supports cultural ideals as an explanation for AN? |
Pollack- in many non-western cultures there are more positive attitudes towards large body sizes as associated with attractiveness, fertility and nurturance |
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What studies refute the role of cultural ideals? |
Hoek- examined medical records of 44,000 people from non-westernised caribbean island where it is acceptable to be overweight -Found 6 cases on AN, a rate in lime with western countries- showing no significant differences between cultures Regan- no significant differences in prevalence of disordered eating between african-american and white-caucasian participants |
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Explain media influences as an AO1 for psychological explanations of AN |
-Thought to be major influence for body image attitudes maintained by western adolescents e.g. thin models on TV and magazines -Although everyone is exposed to media, only a few develop AN--> Jones found media doesn't influence everyone in the same way; those with low self esteem are more likely to compare themselves to images portrayed by media (so more likely to develop AN as a result) |
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What study supports this? |
Becker- found increase in disordered eating in adolescent girls in Fiji following the introduction of TV- they said they wanted to lose weight to look like their favourite TV characters |
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What did Yamamiya find in regard to media and what would a RWA be of these findings? |
Yamamiya- Instructional intervention prior ro media exposure to idealised favela images prevents adverse effects of exposure RWA: educate parents to talk to kids about media influences- explain its not reality |
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Explain peer influence as a psychological explanation for AN |
Adolescents are very susceptible as peer acceptance is particularly important at this stage |
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What study supports the role of peer influences? |
Eisenburg- dieting among friends was significantly related to unhealthy weight control behaviours such as diet pills or purging |
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What is a study that refutes Eisenberg's findings? |
Sheriff and Thompson- no correlation among friends in regard to disordered eating |
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Explain Psychodynamic theory as a psychological explanation for AN? |
Bruch- Origins of AN are in early childhood. Distinguished between effective parents who respond correctly to their child's needs and ineffective parents who fail to respond to their child's internal needs. -Child reaches adolescence and has desire for autonomy but unable to do so. In order to overcome sense of helplessness take excessive control over body in form of ED |
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What studies support this theory? |
Steiner- parents of adolescents with AN tend to define their child's physical needs rather than letting the child define their own Button- supports claim people with AN rely excessively on opinion of others and feel lack of control over their lives HOWEVER this is non-falsifiable as it is hard to measure feelings |
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Explain personality traits as an explanation for AN |
Perfectionism often found in people with AN |
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What studies support this? |
Strober- found high levels of perfectionism amongst teens being treated for AN- displayed in 73% of girls and 50% of boys HOWEVER this only looks at those who've been clinically diagnosed -can't generalise to subclinical population Nilsson- emphasised importance of perfectionism in duration of illness- those with low perfectionism had shorter illness compared to those with high levels perfectionism |
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What are 2 RWA for this research? |
-Test for perfectionism when person comes in for treatment to determine how long illness will last for + therapy should work on reduces perfectionism and relinquishing control -French fashion industry signed charter of good will, promising to use diversity of body types to promote healthy body image to young women and reduce rate of AN |
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What are 2 IDA points for this research? |
Nature/ Nurture- supports role of nurture in development of AN, but ignores biological explanations such as the role of neurotransmitters e.g. serotonin Ethics- researchers tend to collect data on AN from the internet e.g. from helplines, blogs and chatrooms- raised the issue of informed consent as didn't ask individuals for use of their data, which may raise further issues of privacy and confidentiality if published |
