Eas: Prelim 2

Front 1

ecosystem function

Back 1

primary production forms the base of marine food webs so understanding the variability of primary production in the ocean allows for a better understanding of the variability of all marine organisms

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biogeochemistry

Back 2

1. major goal of biological oceanography
2. understand how life in the ocean affects global elemental cycles

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subjects in biogeochemistry

Back 3

1. carbon cycle
2. photosynthesis
3. respiration
4. difference between photosynthesis and respiration

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carbon cycle

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big topic because it is closely related to global warming problem

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photosynthesis

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consumes carbon dioxide gas to form particulate carbon of algae

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respiration

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produces carbon dioxide gas by all organisms

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difference between photosynthesis and respiration

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is what sinks to ocean floor

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phytoplankton

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1. carries out vast majority of primary production in ocean
2. contains chlorophyll\
3. single cell
4. three main groups

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three main groups of phytoplankton

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1. diatoms
2. flagellates
3. photosynthetic bacteria

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diatoms

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1. group of phytoplankton
2. require silica

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flagellates

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1. group of phytoplankton
2. motile (avoid sinking in calm water)

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photosynthetic bacteria

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1. group of phytoplankton
2. able to grow at very low nutrient concentrations

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net primary production (NPP)

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1. difference between amount of CO2 consumed by photosynthesis and amount of CO2 produced by respiration
2. is the NET GAIN or NET LOSS of carbon within the cell

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light levels below compensation light level

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11. phytoplankton do not have sufficient light to photosynthesize fast enough to meant basal metabolic needs
2. respiration exceeds photosynthesis (negative NPP)

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low light levels

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phytoplankton are light limited

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optimal light levels

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phytoplankton are light saturated

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very high light levels

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phytoplankton are photoinhibited

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compensation depth

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1. depth at which ambient light intensity is equal to the compensation light intensity
2. when cells below compensation depth, they lose carbon because light is too dim to allow for positive net primary production

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dominant cell diameters of phytoplanktom assemblage

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1.0 um (low nutrient concentration --> 10.0 um --> 100.0 um (high nutrient concentration)

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4 phytoplankton nutrients of interest to oceanographers

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1. nitrogen
2. phosphorous
3. silica (for diatoms)
4. iron

because at any given place or time in the ocean, it is one of these four nutrients that is in short supply and can limit growth of phytoplankton

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main source of N, P, and Silica to surface ocean?

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vertically mixing or upwelling of nutrient-rich deep-water to the surface

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major source of iron input to the surface ocean?

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from dust blowing off continents

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Iron Limited Regions

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1. Southern ocean
2. subpolar north pacific
3. eastern equatorial pacific

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surface convergence of the Ekman Layer

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1. in subtropics
2. forced by Trade and Westerly Winds
3. forms a mound/lens of warm (low nutrient) water and an associated downward surface layer velocity into deeper ocean
4. make it difficult for nutrients to move upward to the surface ocean

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subtropical gyres

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1. primary production exceptionally low year round (due to surface convergence of Ekman Layer and lens of warm water)
2. exhibit low primary production
3. very little seasonal variation

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Eastern equatorial pacific and atlantic

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equatorial up-welling of cold nutrient rich deep water by:
1. easterly trade winds
2. thermocline
3. thermocline proximity to surface in east

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easterly trade winsd

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cause surface waters to pile up in the west

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thermocline

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deep in the west and shallow in the east

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proximity of thermocline near surface in the east

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enhances upward col and nutrient rich deep water to the lighted regions of the surface ocean and enhances biological productivity in this area

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equatorial pacific

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exhibits very little seasonal variability in primary production

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equatorial atlantic

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exhibits modest seasonal variability because of sudden seasonal trade wind bursts in spring

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how does tidal mixing occur?

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as tide wave motion accelerations horizontally when it is squeezed onto the shallow continental shelf

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high speed tidal currents

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break into vigorous turbulence that causes mixing from top to bottom of the continental shelf water column

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coastal upwelling/down welling along washington oregon coast

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1. wind blowing out of the north drives Ekman layer to the right (northern hemisphere); offshore
2. offshore transport of the Ekman surface layer replaced by upwelling of deeper cold-nutrient rich water along coast
3. wind blowing out south drives Ekman layer right again (onshore)
4. onshore transport of Ekman surface layer is driven downward (aka downwelling)

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tidal mixing

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brings nutrients to the surface year round

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coastal upwelling

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seasonally superimposes additional nutrients

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equatorial primary production

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1. modest seasonality in Atlantic
2. strong inter-annual variation in the pacific because El Nino

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coastal primary production

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1. high year round
2. exceptionally high during upwelling periods in certain regions (California, Chile, Northwest Africa, South Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Portugal)

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north atlantic during spring season

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large seasonal increase in primary production

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mixing depth

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1. summer and winter differences due to changes in depth of the seasonal thermocline in westerly wind region

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average light level phytoplankton experience over the course of a day

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becomes dimmer as mixing depth increases because cells spend an increasing proportion of the day below the compensation depth in the dark

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critical depth

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1. when cells mix below to the critical depth, they have spent too much of the day below the compensation depth losing oxygen
2. net losses of carbon experienced while below the compensation depth exceed net gains while above it

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mixing and critical depth

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1. changes in mixing depth relative to critical depth determines if NPP is positive or negative (and if phytoplankton blooms occur)
2. winter: mixing below critical depth, negative NPP
3. spring: mixing is above critical depth, NPP is positive

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Westerly Wind Region: winter

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1. deep vertical mixing
2. high levels of nutrients to surface
3. phytoplankton mix below critical depth
4. nutrients + dark = NPP light limited

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Westerly Wind Region: spring

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1. formation of shallow thermocline
2. mixing confided above shallow thermocline/critical depth (phytoplanktom exposed to sunlight)
3. nutrients plentiful from winter mixing
4. nutrients + sunlight = spring bloom froms

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Westerly Wind Region: summer

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1. continued stratification in summer
2. mixing remains shallow and above critical depth
3. nutrients are depleted
4. no nutrients + sunlight = NPP nutrient limited

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polar ocean regions

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same as temperate ocean, but melting of ice shelf enhances stratification

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Global NPP

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1. 104 Gt C yr-1
2. same order of magnitude as global terrestrial system

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Oceanic NPP

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46% of Global NPP

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Open Ocean

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1. Trade Winds, Westerly Wind, polar regions
2. exhibit relatively low intensities of primary production
3. contribute most (71%) as a while to the global ocean total NPP

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pelagic

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the water column environment

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benthic

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seafloor environment (also includes coral reefs and rocky intertidal)

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plankton

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unable to swim horizontally against ocean currents, but my move vertically in water column (phytoplankton and zooplankton)

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nekton

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able to swim against ocean currents (ex: fish, sea turtles, squid)

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holoplankton (and example)

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planktonic organisms that live their entire lives in fluid suspension
ex: copepods (shrimp, arrow worms, jelly fish)

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meroplankton

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planktonic organisms that spend only part of their life in fluid suspension
ex: (crabs, barnacles, oysters, clams, fish larvae)

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autotrophs

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1. carbon growth comes from non-organic sources
2. ex: phytoplankton

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heterotrphs

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1. carbon growth comes from previously formed organic carbon material
2. zooplankton, carnivores
3. highly abundant in all ocean environments

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tropic level

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nutritional feeding level within a food chain or food web
1, primary producer (autotroph)
2. primary consumer (herbivore)
3. secondary consumer (first carnivore)
4. tertiary consumer (second carnivore)
etc...

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preferred prey size

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1. 1/10 of consumer size
2. determines everything about an organisms role in the community of pelagic organisms
3. marine food webs are strongly size-structured

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trophic transfer efficiency

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1. exploitation efficiency
2. gross production efficiency

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exploitation efficiency

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1. expresses the efficiency with which members of a given trophic level are able to find, capture, and ingest members of the next lower trophic level
2.game of hide and seek
3. 100% efficiency: every last prey is found and digested

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exploitation efficiency strategies:

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1. detection
2. capture
3. avoid detection (be transparent) avoid encounter (vertically transport)
4. frustrate capture

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diel vertical migration

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1. avoid detection
2. zooplankton migrate up to surface at night to feed in dark to avoid visual predators
3. migrate down during the day for saftey

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Spring Blooms in temperate north atlantic region (exploitation efficiency)

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1. in long winter periods grazers sink deep in ocean and enter a diapause stage and become decoupled from any variations in primary production
2. in spring, phytoplankton grow very high density because it is not held in check by strong grazing pressure until large grazers come out of diapause, grow, and reproduce to control phyplankton abundance
3. allows for exceptional phytoplankton blooms during decoupled periods
4. exploitation efficiency very low

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Tropical environment (exploitation efficiency)

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1. grazers remain active throughout the year and consume phytoplankton as fast as it is made
2. increase in production quickly met with increase in consumption
3. leaves standing stock nearly constant throughout year
4. exploitation efficiency very high

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Gross Growth Efficiency

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1. amount of consumer biomass produced divided by amount of prey ingested
2. efficiency ranges between 20% and 60% (vs exploitation efficiency which is 10%-90%)

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combined effect of both exploitation and gross production effieciencies

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yields an overall trophic transfer efficiency of about 10% to 20%

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overall trophic efficiency

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1. exploitation + gross production
2. ranges from 10% - 20%

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open ocean trophic levels?

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1. 7 levels (least efficient)
2. picophytoplankton

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continental shelf trophic levels?

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1. 4 levels
2. micropphytoplankton

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upwelling region trophic levels?

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1. 3 levels (more efficient)
2. macrophytoplankton

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upper limit on the total biomass of harvestable fish in an given ocean province is determined by:

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1. intensity of primary production
2. number of trophic levels between primary producer and harvestable fish

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Smallest pelagic organism

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ciliated protozoa

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Important New Autotroph

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prochlorococcus

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oligotrophic open ocean environments

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1. low nutrient
2. growth advantage goes to smallest phytoplankton cells (prochlorococcus)

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Prochlorococcus

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1. main contributor (25%+) to primary production in open-ocean environments
2. bacteria sized autotroph
3. apart of oligotrophic systems

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oligotrophic

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1. pelagic environment (water column) that has naturally very low plant nutrient concentrations
2. vast subtropical gyres are oligotrophic
3. small phytoplankton cells/grazers enhance percentage of organic carbon respired back (carbon is recycled)
4. not efficiently pumped into deep ocean
5. increase levels of nitrogen recycling

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eutrophic

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1. pelagic environment (water column) that has naturally high plant nutrient concentrations
2. coastal upwelling zones are eutrophic
3. large phytoplankton/grazers increase organic carbon pumped to the deep ocean (carbon is efficiently pumped into deep ocean)
4. decrease level of nitrogen recycling

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biological carbon pump

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1. occurs during circulation (like a heart)
2. dominant grazers' fecal material sink easily to the deep ocean taking carbon with it (efficient)
3. dominant grazer's fecal matter small fecal materical can't easily sink and particulate carbon respired back to CO2 (inefficient)

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CO2 pathway

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varies when nutrient concentration varies (think food chain of dinosaurs before and after collision)

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fixed chemical stoichiometry

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1. all living things have roughly fixed ration of major elements in their cells
2. pattern of cycling and export to deep ocean for all major elements will look quite similar

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total primary production

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recycled + new primary production

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new primary production

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1. uses nitrate (NO3) from the deep ocean for its nitrogen source
2. used in eutrophic (high nutrient) conditions w/ large cells

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recycled primary production

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1. uses Ammonia (NH4) generated by animal excretion in the upper ocean for its nitrogen source
2. used in oligotrophic (lownutrient) conditions w/ small cells

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competitive growth advantage

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1. shifts to small phytoplankton cells when nutrient concentration is reduced

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What do oceanographer's most want to study

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the cycling of the element that is limiting the growth of phytoplankton

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What do oceanographer's most want to study in the Southern Ocean?

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iron cycling

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What do oceanographer's most want to study in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre?

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phosphorus cycling

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What do oceanographer's most want to study for most places in the world ocean?

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Nitrogen cycling

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How many viruses are there?

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10 viruses per bacterium

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What do viruses do in regards to nutrient?

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1. enhance nutrient cycling
2. 12.5% of atm C absorbed into ocean released by viruses daily (remineralized by bacterioplankton)

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dissolving power of water

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1. highest known of any substance
2. solvation effects

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three states (phases of water)

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1. low temperature limit
2. intermediate case

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low temperature limit of water

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1. (Ehydrogenbond > Ethermal)
2. maximum H bonds
3. maximum order, low thermal motion
4. lattice structure of ice

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Intermediate case

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1. Ehydrogenbond ~ Ethermal
2. clusters of H bonded water
3. interspersed non H bonded water (free water)

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high temperature limit

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1. Ehydrogenbond < Ethermal
2. minimum h bonds
3. minimum order, rapid thermal motion
4. independent, non interacting gas molecules

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specific heat capacity

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1. amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of liquid water by one degree C
2. among the highest of any substance on earth

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latent heat of vaporization

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1. amount of heat to convert 1 gram of liquid water to water vapor
2. 540 calories per gram

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Consequences of Water High Specific Heat Capacity

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1. takes a large amount of heat energy to change ocean temperatures
2. relatively small changes observed in ocean temperature represent very large changes in heat content

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evaporation

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removes latent heat from the ocean to the atmosphere (as water vapor)

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condensation

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latent heat released into atmosphere by condensation of water vapor to form clouds and rain

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molecular properties of water

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1. strong polar natures (good solvent for ionic)
2. hydrogen bonds
3. high heat capacity
4. high latent heat of vaporization

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salinity

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1. measure of salt concentration
2. expressed as the number of grams of salt contained in a thousand grams of seawater (relative proportion remains unchanged everywhre in ocean)
3. roughly equal throughout years (input and output) although large regional differences in surface ocean sallinity
4. set up at air-sea interface
5. direct function of evaporation minus precipitation
6. once removed from sruface the salinity remains constant unless it mixes with other water masses

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Hadley Circulation

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1. produces upward convection and high precipitation along the equator and 60 degree latitude
2. 30 degree is where dry air descends and warms and spreads out north/south (turned by Coriolis)

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salinity distribution

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1. high latitudes have low surface salinity (high precipitation low evaporation)
2. tropics have high surface salinity (high evaporation low precipitation)
3. equator has a dip in surface salinity (high precipitation offsets high evaporation)

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conservative constituents

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properties that are conserved when water leaves surface
ex: salinity, temperature, inert gas concentration

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non conservative constituents

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varied by processes (other than mixing) that occur anywhere in the water column
ex: biological processes (nutrient uptake/remineralization)
ex: geochemical processes (radioactive decay)

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phyloplankton nutrients

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1. nonconservative constituents
2. elements or compounds required by phytoplankton to grow and reproduce
3. nitrogen, phosphorous, silicon, trace metals

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plant nutrients

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1. nonconservative constituents
2. low in surface layer bc rapid uptake by phytoplankton in sunlight
3. high at depth because of respiration/remineralization an no uptake by phytoplankton in dark

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biological sources and sinks

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1. Photosynthesis produces oxygen (occurs on surface) consumes CO2
2. Respiration consumes oxygen (occurs in deep sea) produces CO2

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physical sources and sinks

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1. Vertical diffusion across the air sea interface
2. Horizontal advection from nearby regions

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dissolved O2

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1. nonconservative constituent
2. little respiration occurs at depth due to low organics needed to fuel O2 consumption combines with horizontal advection of high O2 form other locations

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global warming on thermocline

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increase strength of thermocline and make oxygen minimum zone even lower/stronger; reduce vertical mixing and diffusion across this boundary

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carbon dioxide in deep ocean

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largest active/mobile reservoir of carbon dioxide on earth
1. Atmosphere: 720 Gt stored
2. Deep ocean: 35,000 Gt stored
3. Sediments: 50,000,000 - 20,000,000 Gt stored

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deep ocean water rich in CO2 contact with atmospher

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causes CO2 to flux out of ocean

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conveyor belt circulation

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explains why nitrate and phosphate get more concentrated as the deep water moves from the Deep North Atlantic and gradually into the Deep Pacific

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increases in CO2

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more acidic ocean