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404 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
used to propose, test, and provide evidence for/against a hypothesis


used to propose, test, and provide evidence for/against a hypothesis

HYPOTHESIS (SCIENTIFIC METHOD)

tentative or untested explanation, an educated guess


tentative or untested explanation, an educated guess

THEORY (SCIENTIFIC METHOD)
a tested and confirmed hypothesis, complex and accepted as fact
a tested and confirmed hypothesis, complex and accepted as fact

LAW (SCIENTIFIC METHOD)
 a universal statement of fact, often written as a mathematical equation

a universal statement of fact, often written as a mathematical equation

GEOLOGY
the study of the processes behind the formation of the Earth

the study of the processes behind the formation of the Earth

OCEANOGRAPHY
the study of how the ocean works, what lives there, what it's made up of

the study of how the ocean works, what lives there, what it's made up of

METEOROLOGY
the study of how the atmosphere works, including weather, pollution, the climate

the study of how the atmosphere works, including weather, pollution, the climate

ASTRONOMY
the study of outer space: stars, planets, astrophysics

the study of outer space: stars, planets, astrophysics

HYDROSPHERE
hydro = water, so lakes, oceans, rivers, glaciers, and groundwater

hydro = water, so lakes, oceans, rivers, glaciers, and groundwater

ATMOSPHERE
the air layer that separates us from space

the air layer that separates us from space

BIOSPHERE
plants and animals, living things

plants and animals, living things

GEOSPHERE
the part of the Earth made up of rock

the part of the Earth made up of rock

EARTH SYSTEM
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere are all part of this

the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere are all part of this

What is a system?
parts and processes that work together, either in a closed system (ie a machine) or an open system where all the parts interact with other systems (ie the ecosystem)

parts and processes that work together, either in a closed system (ie a machine) or an open system where all the parts interact with other systems (ie the ecosystem)

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

indicates a stable system, if something gets pushed one way, the system naturally tends to put it back how it was (think of any system that forms a closed loop)

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS
on Earth, the Rock Cycle, the Carbon Cycle, and the Hydrologic Cycle all work as stable systems

on Earth, the Rock Cycle, the Carbon Cycle, and the Hydrologic Cycle all work as stable systems

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

any system where change snowballs and creates more of the same, indicates an unstable system (think of any system that shows exponential change in one direction)

POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS
on Earth, human population growth and global warming are examples

on Earth, human population growth and global warming are examples

MINERAL
 building block of rocks, must be 1) homogeneous, 2) naturally occuring, 3) inorganic, 4) solid, 5) definable chemical composition, 6) repeating and orderly crystal lattice

building block of rocks, must be 1) homogeneous, 2) naturally occuring, 3) inorganic, 4) solid, 5) definable chemical composition, 6) repeating and orderly crystal lattice

HOMOGENEOUS
 all one substance

all one substance

CRYSTAL LATTICE
 3D atomic structure of mineral

3D atomic structure of mineral

CRYSTAL

 actual crystal produced by mineral, formed by cooling magma, precipitated solids out of water, or solidify under high ...

actual crystal produced by mineral, formed by cooling magma, precipitated solids out of water, or solidify under high pressure

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 how they are identified

how they are identified

COLOR (MINERALS)
 least useful quality of mineral, small impurities change colo

least useful quality of mineral, small impurities change colo

STREAK (MINERALS)
 color of mineral in powdered state

color of mineral in powdered state

LUSTER (MINERALS)
 how mineral reflects light, metallic or non metallic (waxy, glassy, earthy, pearly)

how mineral reflects light, metallic or non metallic (waxy, glassy, earthy, pearly)

HARDNESS (MINERALS)
 how easily mineral can be scratched

how easily mineral can be scratched

MOHS HARDNESS SCALE
 scale to test mineral hardness from 1 (Talc) to 10 (Diamond)

scale to test mineral hardness from 1 (Talc) to 10 (Diamond)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (MINERALS)
 density of mineral vs water

density of mineral vs water

CRYSTAL FORM
 measure of angle between adjacent faces of mineral

measure of angle between adjacent faces of mineral

CRYSTAL HABIT
 basic shape the crystal grows in

basic shape the crystal grows in

MINERAL CLEAVAGE
 angle of breakage of a mineral, how many faces

angle of breakage of a mineral, how many faces

FRACTURE (MINERALS)
 no cleavage, breaking in an irregular manner

no cleavage, breaking in an irregular manner

MINERAL CLASSES
 minerals organized into groups based on basic chemical composition

minerals organized into groups based on basic chemical composition

SILICATES

 minerals containing silicate ion, most common, (90% of) continental crust, includes quartz, feldspar, mica

minerals containing silicate ion, most common, (90% of) continental crust, includes quartz, feldspar, mica

SILICA TETRAHEDRON
 distinctive shape of a silica atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms, found in every silicate mineral

distinctive shape of a silica atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms, found in every silicate mineral

CARBONATES/CARBONATE ION
 minerals containing a carbonate ion, fizz when acid is applied, includes calcite

minerals containing a carbonate ion, fizz when acid is applied, includes calcite

NATIVE METALS
 elemental minerals, includes gold, silver, copper, and platinum

elemental minerals, includes gold, silver, copper, and platinum

OXIDES

 native metal mineral plus oxygen ion, includes hematite and magnetite

native metal mineral plus oxygen ion, includes hematite and magnetite

SULFUR-BEARING MINERALS
 sulfates and sulfides, minerals with a sulfur ion, includes galena, pyrite, gypsum, epsomite

sulfates and sulfides, minerals with a sulfur ion, includes galena, pyrite, gypsum, epsomite

HALIDES

 minerals containing chlorine, fluorine, or iodine, includes fluorite and halite

minerals containing chlorine, fluorine, or iodine, includes fluorite and halite

ROCK CYCLE
 describes how rocks change from one type to another and classified by how they form, typically igneous breaks down and reforms as sedimentary / gets deformed into metamorphic

describes how rocks change from one type to another and classified by how they form, typically igneous breaks down and reforms as sedimentary / gets deformed into metamorphic

ROCK

 aggregation of minerals that is naturally occurring and cohesive

aggregation of minerals that is naturally occurring and cohesive

IGNEOUS ROCKS

formed from cooling lava

MELT
 what's inside a mix of molten rock, think batter

what's inside a mix of molten rock, think batter

LAVA

 molten rock above the surface of the earth

molten rock above the surface of the earth

EXTRUSIVE (IGNEOUS)

when lava cools above ground (very small crystals)

when lava cools above ground (very small crystals)

INTRUSIVE (IGNEOUS)
 when magma cools below ground

when magma cools below ground

MAGMA

 molten rock below ground

molten rock below ground

TEXTURE (IGNEOUS)

 size of mineral grains, determined by rate of cooling

size of mineral grains, determined by rate of cooling

FINE-GRAINED (IGNEOUS)
 very fine crystals = extrusive/fast cooling

very fine crystals = extrusive/fast cooling

COARSE-GRAINED (IGNEOUS)
 visible crystals = intrusive/slow cooling

visible crystals = intrusive/slow cooling

GLASSY (IGNEOUS)
 no crystals = extremely fast extrusive cooling

no crystals = extremely fast extrusive cooling

ULTRAMAFIC (IGNEOUS)
 mostly iron and magnesium, what the mantle is made of, rare above ground, first to crystallize, includes peridotite

mostly iron and magnesium, what the mantle is made of, rare above ground, first to crystallize, includes peridotite

MAFIC (IGNEOUS)

 high in iron and magnesium, some silicate, composes most of oceanic crust, second to crystallize, includes basalt

high in iron and magnesium, some silicate, composes most of oceanic crust, second to crystallize, includes basalt

INTERMEDIATE (IGNEOUS)

 high in silicate, some iron and magnesium, second to last to crystallize, found on convergent boundaries/volcanic island arcs, includes andesite

high in silicate, some iron and magnesium, second to last to crystallize, found on convergent boundaries/volcanic island arcs, includes andesite

FELSIC (IGNEOUS)

 mostly silicate, last to crystallize, found in continental crust, includes granite

mostly silicate, last to crystallize, found in continental crust, includes granite

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
formed from bits of other rock that gets stuck together (by pressure or by other minerals growing between the bits)

formed from bits of other rock that gets stuck together (by pressure or by other minerals growing between the bits)

SEDIMENTS

 unconsolidated bits of rock (like sand)

unconsolidated bits of rock (like sand)

WEATHERING
 disintegration or decomposition of rock at or near the surface of the Earth

disintegration or decomposition of rock at or near the surface of the Earth

TRANSPORTATION
when sediment is moved by wind or water

when sediment is moved by wind or water

DEPOSITION
where transported sediment gets set down (usually on a beach or river bend or settling at the bottom of the ocean)

where transported sediment gets set down (usually on a beach or river bend or settling at the bottom of the ocean)

DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 formed from fragments of preexisting rocks or other materials

formed from fragments of preexisting rocks or other materials

INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 material precipitated from a fluid, like rock salt, rock gypsum

material precipitated from a fluid, like rock salt, rock gypsum

BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 form from a sediment created by biological processes, includes fossiliferous limestone

form from a sediment created by biological processes, includes fossiliferous limestone

LITHIFICATION
how sediment gets turned to solid rock

how sediment gets turned to solid rock

COMPACTION
sediment gets squished to form rock

sediment gets squished to form rock

CEMENTATION
water precipitates minerals in between bits of sediment

water precipitates minerals in between bits of sediment

STRATA / BEDS
 aka layers

aka layers

BEDDING PLANES
 horizontal surface between layer, where we find things like ripple marks and fossils

horizontal surface between layer, where we find things like ripple marks and fossils

FOSSILS
evidence of past organisms

evidence of past organisms

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
any rock that has been put under high pressure or heat (NOT melted) and had it's structure changed

any rock that has been put under high pressure or heat (NOT melted) and had it's structure changed

HIGH METAMORPHIC GRADE
 high pressure/temp (over 500 C), tend to be coarse grained and visibly foliated. (schist > gneiss)

high pressure/temp (over 500 C), tend to be coarse grained and visibly foliated. (schist > gneiss)

LOW METAMORPHIC GRADE
 low pressure/temp (under 300 C), tend to be fine grained, (shale > slate)

low pressure/temp (under 300 C), tend to be fine grained, (shale > slate)

CONFINING PRESSURE (METAMORPHIC)
 pressure from all angles, experienced by rocks full buried, can change chemical composition by expelling gas

pressure from all angles, experienced by rocks full buried, can change chemical composition by expelling gas

DIFFERENTIAL STRESS (METAMORPHIC)
 pressure from two directions, does not change chemical composition

pressure from two directions, does not change chemical composition

CONTACT METAMORPHISM
 magma cooks surrounding rock, no pressure = no foliation

magma cooks surrounding rock, no pressure = no foliation

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
 large-scale metamorphism during mountain building

large-scale metamorphism during mountain building

FOLIATED
 repeated layers/surfaces in rocks, causes striping and may cause rock to cleave along that surface

repeated layers/surfaces in rocks, causes striping and may cause rock to cleave along that surface

NON-FOLIATED
 greater heat creates metamorphic rocks without layers

greater heat creates metamorphic rocks without layers

PLATE TECTONICS
the unifying theory of geology, explains how all other geologic processes came about

the unifying theory of geology, explains how all other geologic processes came about

TECTONIC PLATE (LITHOSPHERE)
 crust + uppermost solid layer of mantle, broken into ~20 plates that move relative to each other a few cm / year

crust + uppermost solid layer of mantle, broken into ~20 plates that move relative to each other a few cm / year

PLATE BOUNDARIES
 where plates meet, either CONVERGENT, DIVERGENT, or TRANSFORM

where plates meet, either CONVERGENT, DIVERGENT, or TRANSFORM

MANTLE

 below lithosphere, non traditional solid like egg white, convects, ultramafic rock

below lithosphere, non traditional solid like egg white, convects, ultramafic rock

MANTLE CONVECTION
 cyclical motion in mantle rock produces movement in tectonic plates

cyclical motion in mantle rock produces movement in tectonic plates

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
 where plates move away from each other, produces mid-ocean ridges / rift valleys

where plates move away from each other, produces mid-ocean ridges / rift valleys

MID-OCEAN RIDGE
 divergent plate boundary, hot rocks expand, produces underwater mountain range

divergent plate boundary, hot rocks expand, produces underwater mountain range

MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE
 mid-ocean ridge is the spine of the Atlantic Ocean

mid-ocean ridge is the spine of the Atlantic Ocean

ICELAND (PLATE TECTONICS)
 unique geology: mid-ocean ridge observed lifted above water via hot spot (unrelated), NOT the same as a continenta...

unique geology: mid-ocean ridge observed lifted above water via hot spot (unrelated), NOT the same as a continental rift because it's on uplifted oceanic crust

CONTINENTAL RIFT
 a divergent plate boundary on continental crust

a divergent plate boundary on continental crust

RED SEA (PLATE TECTONICS)
 unique geology: continental rift under water

unique geology: continental rift under water

EAST-AFRICAN RIFT (PLATE TECTONICS)
 example of a continental rift

example of a continental rift

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
 where two plates collide

where two plates collide

SUBDUCTION
 on a convergent boundary, the denser plate (oceanic basaltic crust) subducts under less dense plate (continental granitic crust)

on a convergent boundary, the denser plate (oceanic basaltic crust) subducts under less dense plate (continental granitic crust)

OCEANIC-OCEANIC CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
 both oceanic plates dense, so plate with closest continental crust will "float" over other oceanic plate

both oceanic plates dense, so plate with closest continental crust will "float" over other oceanic plate

OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
 oceanic plate subducts below continental, produces volcanic activity on continental plate

oceanic plate subducts below continental, produces volcanic activity on continental plate

CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
 where two continental plates meet continental crust crumples, produces huge mountains, oceanic basins get raised up between plates

where two continental plates meet continental crust crumples, produces huge mountains, oceanic basins get raised up between plates

TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARY
 where a convergent plate boundary transforms into divergent, no subduction or collision, produces massive faulting

where a convergent plate boundary transforms into divergent, no subduction or collision, produces massive faulting

SAN ANDREAS FAULT

 runs length of transform plate boundary between Pacific (Oceanic) Plate and North American (Continental) Plate sli...

runs length of transform plate boundary between Pacific (Oceanic) Plate and North American (Continental) Plate slide past each other

HOT SPOT
 somewhat stationary upwelling of magma

somewhat stationary upwelling of magma

HAWAII

 volcanic island chain produced by hot spot below Pacific Plate, evidence of past island chains produced by hot spot show historic plate movement

volcanic island chain produced by hot spot below Pacific Plate, evidence of past island chains produced by hot spot show historic plate movement

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
hot spot beneath North American Plate

hot spot beneath North American Plate

EARTHQUAKE

 release of energy due to slippage along a fault

release of energy due to slippage along a fault

FAULT

fracture in crust along which movement occurs

HANGING WALL
 block of rock above fault

block of rock above fault

FOOTWALL

 block of rock below fault

block of rock below fault

TYPES OF FAULTS

classified by angle of crack and direction of movement

NORMAL FAULT
 hanging wall moves down against footwal

hanging wall moves down against footwal

REVERSE FAULT
 footwall moves up against hanging wall

footwall moves up against hanging wall

THRUST FAULT
 footwall moves up against hanging wall

footwall moves up against hanging wall

STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
 a reverse fault at an angle less than 45 degrees

a reverse fault at an angle less than 45 degrees

SHOCKWAVE (SEISMIC WAVE)

release of energy in an earthquake, like a ripple through rock

SURFACE WAVES
 earthquake waves at surface, includes rayleigh waves and love waves, the slowest waves, sometimes visible to human eye

earthquake waves at surface, includes rayleigh waves and love waves, the slowest waves, sometimes visible to human eye

BODY WAVES
 earthquake waves below surface of the earth, includes primary (p) waves and secondary (s) waves, the fastest waves

earthquake waves below surface of the earth, includes primary (p) waves and secondary (s) waves, the fastest waves

PRIMARY (P) WAVES
 earthquake waves below surface, can move through solids/liquids/gasses, compress and contract like an earthworm, fastest wave type

earthquake waves below surface, can move through solids/liquids/gasses, compress and contract like an earthworm, fastest wave type

SECONDARY (S) WAVES
 earthquake waves below surface, move up and down, only through solids

earthquake waves below surface, move up and down, only through solids

FOCUS (EARTHQUAKES)
 where earthquake originated below ground

where earthquake originated below ground

EPICENTER (EARTHQUAKES)
 where earthquake originated on a map

where earthquake originated on a map

SEISMOGRAM
 record of duration/amount of shaking in an earthquake

record of duration/amount of shaking in an earthquake

RICHTER SCALE
 most commonly used, logarithmic (a 2 is ten times stronger than a 1) 1-10 earthquake magnitude scale, measured by biggest squiggle on a seismogram, tends to underrate very large quakes

most commonly used, logarithmic (a 2 is ten times stronger than a 1) 1-10 earthquake magnitude scale, measured by biggest squiggle on a seismogram, tends to underrate very large quakes

MOMENT MAGNITUDE SCALE

1-10 earthquake magnitude scale, based on amount of displacement, the total surface area affected, and strength of rock it occurred in (bedrock safer than loose sediment), works best for large earthquakes, same as Richter on small quakes

LIQUEFACTION

 water saturated sediments turn liquid, happens most often on artificially piled sediments (ie artificially reclaimed sea)

water saturated sediments turn liquid, happens most often on artificially piled sediments (ie artificially reclaimed sea)

TSUNAMI
 undersea earthquake causes displacement when a hanging wall goes up/down, seismic wave moves through water, close to shore there's less water for it to move through = bigger wave

undersea earthquake causes displacement when a hanging wall goes up/down, seismic wave moves through water, close to shore there's less water for it to move through = bigger wave

INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI
 M9.15, more than 230,000 dead, 3rd largest ever recorded

M9.15, more than 230,000 dead, 3rd largest ever recorded

TOHOKU TSUNAMI
 M9.0, more than 20,000 dead. quake lasted for six minutes, produced tsunami with 133 ft waves that traveled up to 6 miles inland, moved Honshu 8 ft to the east

M9.0, more than 20,000 dead. quake lasted for six minutes, produced tsunami with 133 ft waves that traveled up to 6 miles inland, moved Honshu 8 ft to the east

BEDROCK

the solid rock that lies beneath soil, very stable, means less damage in an earthquake if a building's foundation is built into it

VOLCANOES
any place magma reaches the surface

any place magma reaches the surface

DECOMPRESSION
magma that forms due to a decrease in the amount of pressure on a rock

magma that forms due to a decrease in the amount of pressure on a rock

HEAT TRANSFER
magma heats rock and makes more magma

magma heats rock and makes more magma

ADDITION OF GASES
when gas in a rock (like water in subducting oceanic plate crust) heats up and helps melt the surrounding rock faster

when gas in a rock (like water in subducting oceanic plate crust) heats up and helps melt the surrounding rock faster

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS STRUCTURES
 forms magma takes when cooled below the earth

forms magma takes when cooled below the earth

PLUTON
 blob shaped magma chamber exposed as surrounding rock erodes faster

blob shaped magma chamber exposed as surrounding rock erodes faster

BATHOLITH

 many plutons in one spot, eg Sierra Nevadas

many plutons in one spot, eg Sierra Nevadas

LACCOLITH
 dome shaped lava puddle cooled between layers

dome shaped lava puddle cooled between layers

SILL
 similar to laccolith but flatter, magma cooled between distinctive layers

similar to laccolith but flatter, magma cooled between distinctive layers

DIKE
 vertical sill, magma cooled in a crack

vertical sill, magma cooled in a crack

EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS STRUCTURES
 aka volcanoes, any magma (lava) that cools outside of the earth

aka volcanoes, any magma (lava) that cools outside of the earth

MAGMA CHAMBER
 underground magma pool specific to volcanoes

underground magma pool specific to volcanoes

VENT
 where volcanic material reaches surface, either circular or linear fissure

where volcanic material reaches surface, either circular or linear fissure

PIPE
a chute through which magma reaches the surface

a chute through which magma reaches the surface

COMPOSITE VOLCANO
 steep sided volcano with explosive eruptions, called composite because composed of layers of pyroclastic rock (viscous felsic/andesitic lava creates gassy, explosive eruptions)

steep sided volcano with explosive eruptions, called composite because composed of layers of pyroclastic rock (viscous felsic/andesitic lava creates gassy, explosive eruptions)

PYROCLASTICS
 rocks formed as they flew out of a volcano

rocks formed as they flew out of a volcano

BOMBS
 blog of lava cooled as it flew, rounded/teardrop shaped (usually mafic)

blog of lava cooled as it flew, rounded/teardrop shaped (usually mafic)

CINDERS
 vesicular gravel , small and glassy, falls as a solid, common on cindercones

vesicular gravel , small and glassy, falls as a solid, common on cindercones

ASH
 fine unconsolidated particles of rock

fine unconsolidated particles of rock

NUÉE ARDENTE
 hot ash flows over air down the side of a volcano at high speed

hot ash flows over air down the side of a volcano at high speed

LAHAR
 melted snow/water mixes with ash = very fast and hot mudflow

melted snow/water mixes with ash = very fast and hot mudflow

CALDERA
 when a magma chamber explodes and volcano collapses under its own weight

when a magma chamber explodes and volcano collapses under its own weight

MT. VESUVIUS / POMPEII
 active composite volcano in Italy, erupted in 79 AD, 21 mile high ash cloud, 1.5 million tons of material ejected per second, buried Roman town of Pompeii in 20ft of ash

active composite volcano in Italy, erupted in 79 AD, 21 mile high ash cloud, 1.5 million tons of material ejected per second, buried Roman town of Pompeii in 20ft of ash

CRATER LAKE
 Oregon lake is a remnant caldera from Mt. Mazama eruption in 2290 BC

Oregon lake is a remnant caldera from Mt. Mazama eruption in 2290 BC

SHIELD VOLCANO
 gently sloping and very massive volcano with very slow eruptions of runny mafic lava

gently sloping and very massive volcano with very slow eruptions of runny mafic lava

HAWAII
 includes shield volcanoes Mauna Lea and Kilauea, latter has been slowly erupting since 1983

includes shield volcanoes Mauna Lea and Kilauea, latter has been slowly erupting since 1983

TAMU MASSIF
 extinct shield volcano 145 million years old currently 2km under water, so massive that Mauna Lea is 2% of its size

extinct shield volcano 145 million years old currently 2km under water, so massive that Mauna Lea is 2% of its size

PAHOEHOE LAVA
 low viscosity mafic lava, forms rope-like/smooth structures

low viscosity mafic lava, forms rope-like/smooth structures

A'A LAVA
 medium viscosity mafic lava, jagged and blocky

medium viscosity mafic lava, jagged and blocky

PILLOW BASALTS
 basalt extruded deep under water, high pressure means fast cooling = distinctive shape

basalt extruded deep under water, high pressure means fast cooling = distinctive shape

CINDER CONES
 pile of cinders formed from a single volcanic vent, usually relatively small

pile of cinders formed from a single volcanic vent, usually relatively small

SHEET BASALTS
 erupt out of fissure volcano, linear vents covering large areas

erupt out of fissure volcano, linear vents covering large areas

FISSURE

 crack through which lava can erupt

crack through which lava can erupt

COLUMBIA RIVER BASALTS
 formed 17.5 million years ago, extruded by same hot spot under Yellowstone today

formed 17.5 million years ago, extruded by same hot spot under Yellowstone today

DEFORMING / DEFORMATION
 ...

change in position, volume, or shape of a body of rock due to pressure

PRESSURE / STRESS

force acting on rock, causes it to deform or strain

DUCTILE DEFORMATION
 rocks under high confining pressure lose brittleness, become capable of flow and folding (think metamorphic rocks)

rocks under high confining pressure lose brittleness, become capable of flow and folding (think metamorphic rocks)

BRITTLE DEFORMATION
 rocks under low confining pressure fracture when acted on by other stresses (think faults)

rocks under low confining pressure fracture when acted on by other stresses (think faults)

FOLDING

 ductile rocks (rocks under confining pressure, buried deep) fold when compressed (pressure from two directions)

ductile rocks (rocks under confining pressure, buried deep) fold when compressed (pressure from two directions)

COMPRESSION

 pressure pushing rock from two directions (brittle rock = reverse faults, ductile rock = folding)

pressure pushing rock from two directions (brittle rock = reverse faults, ductile rock = folding)

ANTICLINE

 aka upfolds or convex fold, with oldest rock in the middle

aka upfolds or convex fold, with oldest rock in the middle

SYNCLINE

 aka downfolds or concave folds, with youngest rock in the middle

aka downfolds or concave folds, with youngest rock in the middle

DOME
 somewhat circular portion of strata warped upward oldest rock in the middle, from compression (pushed together) stress on ductile rock

somewhat circular portion of strata warped upward oldest rock in the middle, from compression (pushed together) stress on ductile rock

BLACK HILLS
 oval dome formation in South Dakota, with Precambrian granite in the center, rock grows younger as you move outward fr...

oval dome formation in South Dakota, with Precambrian granite in the center, rock grows younger as you move outward from center

BASIN
 somewhat circular portion of strata warped downward with youngest rock in the middle, from tension (pulling apart) stress on ductile rock

somewhat circular portion of strata warped downward with youngest rock in the middle, from tension (pulling apart) stress on ductile rock

MICHIGAN BASIN
 state of Michigan is a giant basin with youngest rock in the center and concentric rings of older rock around it

state of Michigan is a giant basin with youngest rock in the center and concentric rings of older rock around it

DISPLACEMENT
movement of two bodies of rock in different directions along a fault, causes brittle deformation (fracturing)

movement of two bodies of rock in different directions along a fault, causes brittle deformation (fracturing)

FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS
 mountains formed when rock gets pushed down/up on a fault

mountains formed when rock gets pushed down/up on a fault

BASIN AND RANGE
 tension faulting makes mountain > valley > mountain pattern

tension faulting makes mountain > valley > mountain pattern

NEVADA (ROCK DEFORMATION)
 almost all of Nevada is basin and range

almost all of Nevada is basin and range

OCEANIC-OCEANIC MOUNTAIN BUILDING
 when two oceanic plates converge, one plate subducts, volcanic island arcs form

when two oceanic plates converge, one plate subducts, volcanic island arcs form

VOLCANIC ISLAND ARC
 form on oceanic/oceanic convergence, magma pushed up by subducting plate/water (volatiles) trapped in subducting plate cause melting

form on oceanic/oceanic convergence, magma pushed up by subducting plate/water (volatiles) trapped in subducting plate cause melting

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
 volcanic island arc in Alaska where Pacific Plate subducts under North American Plate

volcanic island arc in Alaska where Pacific Plate subducts under North American Plate

OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL MOUNTAIN BUILDING
 oceanic plate subducts under continental plate, three possible types of boundary can form

oceanic plate subducts under continental plate, three possible types of boundary can form

PASSIVE MARGIN

oceanic and continental crust meet WITHOUT a plate boundary

EAST COAST (PASSIVE MARGIN)
 continental crust of North America transitions to oceanic crust of the Atlantic but all part of the same North American Plate

continental crust of North America transitions to oceanic crust of the Atlantic but all part of the same North American Plate

ACTIVE MARGIN

oceanic and continental crust meet on a plate boundary where the continental plate crumples, subducting oceanic plate creates volcanic activity on continental crust

ANDES MOUNTAINS (ACTIVE MARGIN)
 mountain range on western edge of South America, where oceanic Nazca Plate subducts under the South American Plate

mountain range on western edge of South America, where oceanic Nazca Plate subducts under the South American Plate

INACTIVE MARGIN

post subduction on an oceanic/continental plate boundary (formerly an active margin)

WEST COAST (INACTIVE MARGIN)
 Pacific Plate no longer subducting under California, transform boundary instead, but Sierra Nevadas and Coast Ranges evidence of past subduction

Pacific Plate no longer subducting under California, transform boundary instead, but Sierra Nevadas and Coast Ranges evidence of past subduction

CONTINENT-CONTINENT MOUNTAIN BUILDING
 no subduction, crusts thicken and fold on impact leading to high grade metamorphism, reverse faults, no volcanoes

no subduction, crusts thicken and fold on impact leading to high grade metamorphism, reverse faults, no volcanoes

HIMALAYAS
 massive mountains from crumpling continental crust where Indian Plate collides with Eurasian Plate

massive mountains from crumpling continental crust where Indian Plate collides with Eurasian Plate

ACCRETION
 process by which material on subducting plate gets stuck to overriding plate

process by which material on subducting plate gets stuck to overriding plate

TERRANE (ACCRETION)

fragments of crust accreted onto the side of a continent

WEST COAST (ACCRETION)
 West Coast is made up of island arcs that got accreted onto North American Plate

West Coast is made up of island arcs that got accreted onto North American Plate

RELATIVE DATING
how old rock is compared to the rock around it

how old rock is compared to the rock around it

LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
 old rocks at the bottom, young rocks at the top

old rocks at the bottom, young rocks at the top

PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY
 sedimentary layers are deposited horizontally

sedimentary layers are deposited horizontally

PRINCIPLE OF CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS
 if something cuts through layers, it is younger than those layers

if something cuts through layers, it is younger than those layers

INCLUSIONS
 rock surrounding inclusions is younger than the inclusions themselves (the rock that makes up the inclusion had to exist before it could be included)

rock surrounding inclusions is younger than the inclusions themselves (the rock that makes up the inclusion had to exist before it could be included)

UNCONFORMITY

 strata deposited in a broken sequence (gaps in time between one layer and another)

strata deposited in a broken sequence (gaps in time between one layer and another)

ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY
 tilted layers overlain by flat lying layers, means tectonics uplifted and tilted previously flat layers

tilted layers overlain by flat lying layers, means tectonics uplifted and tilted previously flat layers

DISCONFORMITY
 unconformity between parallel layers of rock (for example, sea level dropped, deposition stopped, top layer(s) eroded,...

unconformity between parallel layers of rock (for example, sea level dropped, deposition stopped, top layer(s) eroded, and then the sea level rose and deposition started again)

NONCONFORMITY
 older metamorphic or igneous rocks below a nonconformity, younger sediments above

older metamorphic or igneous rocks below a nonconformity, younger sediments above

ROCK CORRELATION
 use distinctive rock types to correlate over a distance (ie Kaibab Formation at top of Grand Canyon/bottom of Zion)

use distinctive rock types to correlate over a distance (ie Kaibab Formation at top of Grand Canyon/bottom of Zion)

FOSSIL CORRELATION
 use index fossils to match rocks over distance

use index fossils to match rocks over distance

INDEX FOSSILS
 fossils used for dating of rocks, need to be ubiquitous, geologically short lived, distinctive

fossils used for dating of rocks, need to be ubiquitous, geologically short lived, distinctive

ABSOLUTE DATING
 ...

using radiometric dating, gives an absolute number for age

RADIOMETRIC DATING
 uses radioactive decay of elements in minerals as a clock to date

uses radioactive decay of elements in minerals as a clock to date

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
 spontaneous breakdown of nuclei in an element

spontaneous breakdown of nuclei in an element

PARENT / DAUGHTER ELEMENTS / ISOTOPES
 parent isotope/element decays into daughter element/isotope at a specific rate

parent isotope/element decays into daughter element/isotope at a specific rate

HALF-LIFE
 specific rate at which parent isotope decays into daughter isotope, different for each element, used to find absolute dates

specific rate at which parent isotope decays into daughter isotope, different for each element, used to find absolute dates

CARBON 14 DATING
 used to date material up to 60,000 years old, carbon dioxide absorbed by plants > ingested by animals, creatures stop ingesting carbon when they die

used to date material up to 60,000 years old, carbon dioxide absorbed by plants > ingested by animals, creatures stop ingesting carbon when they die

POTASSIUM/ARGON DATING
 date rocks older than 100,000 years old, most useful in dating beds of ash and layers between them

date rocks older than 100,000 years old, most useful in dating beds of ash and layers between them

DEEP TIME / GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
how geologists measure time on large scales, divided into eons and eras

how geologists measure time on large scales, divided into eons and eras

ERAS
major periods of geologic history, oldest to youngest:  Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, divided by major events instead of certain dates

major periods of geologic history, oldest to youngest: Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, divided by major events instead of certain dates

K/P BOUNDARY
example of boundary between eras, boundary dates to 65 mya, dinosaurs found below but never above

example of boundary between eras, boundary dates to 65 mya, dinosaurs found below but never above

PRECAMBRIAN
4.5 bya – 546 mya, 88% of history, not an eon or era but an antiquated term used to refer to the period of time before there was multicellular life on earth, rocks rare for most of this time

4.5 bya – 546 mya, 88% of history, not an eon or era but an antiquated term used to refer to the period of time before there was multicellular life on earth, rocks rare for most of this time

BANDED IRON FORMATIONS
bands of red rock from about 3.8 billion years ago, red due to iron precipitating out of water due to oxygen (and oxygen = living creatures to produce it)

bands of red rock from about 3.8 billion years ago, red due to iron precipitating out of water due to oxygen (and oxygen = living creatures to produce it)

STROMATOLITES
layers of single celled organisms in distinct formations, the oldest life on Earth (still found today)

layers of single celled organisms in distinct formations, the oldest life on Earth (still found today)

PALEOZOIC ERA
 546 mya – 250 mya, aka age of invertibrates, fish, amphibians

546 mya – 250 mya, aka age of invertibrates, fish, amphibians

CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION
~540 MYA (Paleozoic), first major event in the Paleozoic Era, huge rise in diversity and size of life on Earth, 80% of major groups of modern organisms found, shelled creatures for first time

~540 MYA (Paleozoic), first major event in the Paleozoic Era, huge rise in diversity and size of life on Earth, 80% of major groups of modern organisms found, shelled creatures for first time

CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD
~380 MYA (Paleozoic), land plants abundant, as they die and decay form coal swamps (the coal we have today comes from fossilized organic material)

~380 MYA (Paleozoic), land plants abundant, as they die and decay form coal swamps (the coal we have today comes from fossilized organic material)

LOBE-FINNED FISH
what all creatures with hands evolved from, first found in Paleozoic (still found today)

what all creatures with hands evolved from, first found in Paleozoic (still found today)

AMPHIBIANS
first found ~375 MYA (Paleozoic), evolve from lobe-finned fish, able to walk on land

first found ~375 MYA (Paleozoic), evolve from lobe-finned fish, able to walk on land

PROTO-MAMMALS
(Paleozoic) first amphibians diversify, some into first reptiles, which are first mammal ancestors (you can tell by the way their legs are splayed to the side, think about how a dog walks)

(Paleozoic) first amphibians diversify, some into first reptiles, which are first mammal ancestors (you can tell by the way their legs are splayed to the side, think about how a dog walks)

PANGAEA
forms ~280 MYA (Paleozoic), plates collide creating massive mountains and one massive continent, species spread

forms ~280 MYA (Paleozoic), plates collide creating massive mountains and one massive continent, species spread

MASS EXTINCTION
five recognized in Earth's history, representing massive die off of a significant % of all species, often separate geologic eras (we might be in the 6th)

five recognized in Earth's history, representing massive die off of a significant % of all species, often separate geologic eras (we might be in the 6th)

P/T EXTINCTION EVENT
aka Paleozoic/Triassic Extinction at ~540 MYA, 90% of life gone, probably due to volcanic activity (gas releases) changing the ocean and atmosphere

aka Paleozoic/Triassic Extinction at ~540 MYA, 90% of life gone, probably due to volcanic activity (gas releases) changing the ocean and atmosphere

MESOZOIC ERA
 250 mya – 65 mya, age of reptiles (dinosaurs)

250 mya – 65 mya, age of reptiles (dinosaurs)

CRETACEOUS INTERIOR SEAWAY
in Mesozoic, a sea the bisected North America

in Mesozoic, a sea the bisected North America

ATLANTIC OCEAN
forms during Mesozoic as Pangea breaks apart (remember there's a divergent plate boundary in the middle of the Atlantic!)

forms during Mesozoic as Pangea breaks apart (remember there's a divergent plate boundary in the middle of the Atlantic!)

ROCKY MOUNTAINS
form during Mesozoic, when plate subducts under western USA

form during Mesozoic, when plate subducts under western USA

CONIFERS
evolve during Mesozoic, trees with cones (think pine trees) are the main tree in the Triassic (first part of Mesozoic)

evolve during Mesozoic, trees with cones (think pine trees) are the main tree in the Triassic (first part of Mesozoic)

FLOWERING PLANTS
evolve during Cretaceous period of Mesozoic, help new species evolve

evolve during Cretaceous period of Mesozoic, help new species evolve

GRASSES
evolve in late Cretaceous period of Mesozoic

evolve in late Cretaceous period of Mesozoic

DINOSAURS
reptiles survive P/T Extinction and diversify in Mesozoic, some evolve into birds

reptiles survive P/T Extinction and diversify in Mesozoic, some evolve into birds

K/P EXTINCTION EVENT
end of Mesozoic Era, 10km wide asteroid hits, 70% marine life dies, birds only dino survivors

end of Mesozoic Era, 10km wide asteroid hits, 70% marine life dies, birds only dino survivors

CHICXULUB CRATER
remains of asteroid collision that ended the Mesozoic, found on Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico

remains of asteroid collision that ended the Mesozoic, found on Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico

CENOZOIC
 65 mya – present, age of mammals (including us)

65 mya – present, age of mammals (including us)

OCEANOGRAPHY
a mix of geology, chemistry, physics, and biology pertaining to the oceans

a mix of geology, chemistry, physics, and biology pertaining to the oceans

PACIFIC OCEAN BASIN
largest, includes half of all ocean area

largest, includes half of all ocean area

ATLANTIC OCEAN BASIN
half the size of the Pacific

half the size of the Pacific

INDIAN OCEAN BASIN
slightly smaller than Atlantic

slightly smaller than Atlantic

ARCTIC OCEAN BASIN
the smallest ocean basin (around North Pole)

the smallest ocean basin (around North Pole)

SOUTHERN OCEAN BASIN
stretches around Antarctica

stretches around Antarctica

BATHYMETRY
how we map the ocean floor, using sonar or satellite technology

how we map the ocean floor, using sonar or satellite technology

H.M.S. CHALLENGER
ship used to map ocean floor by dragging a weight around in the 1870s

ship used to map ocean floor by dragging a weight around in the 1870s

SONAR
SOund Navigation And Ranging, uses sound waves to map ocean floor

SOund Navigation And Ranging, uses sound waves to map ocean floor

CONTINENTAL SHELF
semi-flat and shallow area that extends underwater from shore, tends to be wide on passive margins and narrow on active margins

semi-flat and shallow area that extends underwater from shore, tends to be wide on passive margins and narrow on active margins

CONTINENTAL SLOPE
area where continental shelf breaks off, usually steep and containing canyons formed by turbidity currents, on active margin it is extremely steep and leads down to trench associated with subducting plate

area where continental shelf breaks off, usually steep and containing canyons formed by turbidity currents, on active margin it is extremely steep and leads down to trench associated with subducting plate

CONTINENTAL RISE
only found on passive margins, where continental slope levels off, formed because of underwater turbidity fans

only found on passive margins, where continental slope levels off, formed because of underwater turbidity fans

ABYSSAL PLAIN
flat area between continental rise and mid ocean ridge

flat area between continental rise and mid ocean ridge

MID OCEAN RIDGE
longest feature on Earth, over 70,000 kms long

longest feature on Earth, over 70,000 kms long

TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENTS
very fine dust washed/blown into ocean from continents

very fine dust washed/blown into ocean from continents

BIOGENOUS SEDIMENTS
any sediment produced by biological processes - shells, skeletons, dead plankton

any sediment produced by biological processes - shells, skeletons, dead plankton

CARBONATE OOZE
a type of biogenous ocean sediment, formed by shells containing calcium carbonate (will eventually form fossiliferous limestone), occurs at shallower depths

a type of biogenous ocean sediment, formed by shells containing calcium carbonate (will eventually form fossiliferous limestone), occurs at shallower depths

SILICEOUS OOZE
at lower depths carbonate material dissolves leaving only silicate shells (will eventually form chert)

at lower depths carbonate material dissolves leaving only silicate shells (will eventually form chert)

HYDROGENOUS SEDIMENTS
relatively rare, occur when minerals precipitate out of ocean water

relatively rare, occur when minerals precipitate out of ocean water

METHANE HYDRATES
methane contained in ice, found in the ocean floor, more of this on Earth than natural gas

methane contained in ice, found in the ocean floor, more of this on Earth than natural gas

EVAPORITES
mineral solids formed due to evaporating ocean water

mineral solids formed due to evaporating ocean water

MANGANESE NODULES
metal deposits that grow very slowly in the ocean
metal deposits that grow very slowly in the ocean

SALINITY
total amount of material dissolved in water (seawater is about 3.5% dissolved solids), more than just salt, comes from chemical weathering and volcanic eruptions

total amount of material dissolved in water (seawater is about 3.5% dissolved solids), more than just salt, comes from chemical weathering and volcanic eruptions

DEAD SEA
saltiest water mass on Earth, found between Israel and Jordan (actually just a lake)

saltiest water mass on Earth, found between Israel and Jordan (actually just a lake)

HALOCLINE
zone of dramatic salinity change in the ocean

zone of dramatic salinity change in the ocean

THERMOCLINE
zone of dramatic temperature change in the ocean (most pronounced at the Equator, non existent at Poles)
zone of dramatic temperature change in the ocean (most pronounced at the Equator, non existent at Poles)

PYCNOCLINE
zone of dramatic density change due to temperature (higher temperature, lower density) or salinity change (higher salinity, higher density)

zone of dramatic density change due to temperature (higher temperature, lower density) or salinity change (higher salinity, higher density)

PRODUCTIVITY
refers to how biologically active a part of the ocean is

refers to how biologically active a part of the ocean is

PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
amount of photosynthesizing organisms occur in part of the ocean, depends on amount of sunlight and nutrients

amount of photosynthesizing organisms occur in part of the ocean, depends on amount of sunlight and nutrients

NUTRIENTS
in the ocean this refers to the amount of nitrates, phosphorous, iron, and silica, etc. in the water, no nutrients = low productivity!

in the ocean this refers to the amount of nitrates, phosphorous, iron, and silica, etc. in the water, no nutrients = low productivity!

EQUATOR PRODUCTIVITY
high in sunlight, low in nutrients because of a strong thermocline that prevents deep water nutrients from rising

high in sunlight, low in nutrients because of a strong thermocline that prevents deep water nutrients from rising

MID-LATITUDE PRODUCTIVITY
depends on season, sun in summer but strong thermocline and low nutrients, low sun in winter but smaller thermocline and more nutrients rising

depends on season, sun in summer but strong thermocline and low nutrients, low sun in winter but smaller thermocline and more nutrients rising

PRODUCTIVITY AT POLES
lots of nutrients, but low sunlight = productivity goes up in summer with increased sunlight

lots of nutrients, but low sunlight = productivity goes up in summer with increased sunlight

UPWELLING
when deep-water currents cause nutrients to rise (at the equator this means greater productivity)

when deep-water currents cause nutrients to rise (at the equator this means greater productivity)

TROPHIC LEVELS
like the food chain in the ocean, goes by steps with large animals on top and plankton at the bottom

like the food chain in the ocean, goes by steps with large animals on top and plankton at the bottom

CURRENTS
masses of water that flow through the ocean, include surface and deep currents

masses of water that flow through the ocean, include surface and deep currents

SURFACE CURRENTS
mostly depends on wind, so varies regionally and seasonally

mostly depends on wind, so varies regionally and seasonally

GYRES
areas where a surface current is permanent and cyclical, affected by coriolis effect

areas where a surface current is permanent and cyclical, affected by coriolis effect

CORIOLIS EFFECT
due to Earth's rotation, gyres in the northern hemisphere rotate clockwise, in southern hemisphere counter clockwise

due to Earth's rotation, gyres in the northern hemisphere rotate clockwise, in southern hemisphere counter clockwise

NORTH ATLANTIC GYRE

NORTH PACIFIC GYRE
where we find the Great Pacific Garbage Patch

where we find the Great Pacific Garbage Patch

GREAT PACIFIC GARBAGE PATCH
area in the north Pacific of extremely high plastic concentrations, mostly as very small particles, not literally garbage floating on top of the water

area in the north Pacific of extremely high plastic concentrations, mostly as very small particles, not literally garbage floating on top of the water

GULF STREAM
part of the North Atlantic Gyre that carries warm water from equator to Northern Hemisphere, helps keep Europe warmer

part of the North Atlantic Gyre that carries warm water from equator to Northern Hemisphere, helps keep Europe warmer

CALIFORNIA CURRENT
brings chilled water from North Pacific southward, this is why the Pacific off our coast is really cold

brings chilled water from North Pacific southward, this is why the Pacific off our coast is really cold

DEEP CURRENTS
include vertical and horizontal movement, occur from surface to extreme deep ocean

include vertical and horizontal movement, occur from surface to extreme deep ocean

THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION
when changes in density due to heat (thermo) and salinity (haline) cause deep currents (begins when salty water sinks in the North Atlantic)

when changes in density due to heat (thermo) and salinity (haline) cause deep currents (begins when salty water sinks in the North Atlantic)

EROSIONAL SHORELINE
shoreline that is eroding, include cliffs, platforms, terraces, sea arches, and stacks

shoreline that is eroding, include cliffs, platforms, terraces, sea arches, and stacks

DEPOSITIONAL SHORELINE
a shoreline that is growing, waves move sediments via beach drift and longshore currents, depositing bars, spits, and barrier islands

a shoreline that is growing, waves move sediments via beach drift and longshore currents, depositing bars, spits, and barrier islands

SEA CLIFFS
feature of erosional shorelines

feature of erosional shorelines

WAVE CUT PLATFORMS
feature of erosional shorelines

feature of erosional shorelines

WAVE CUT TERRACES
feature of erosional shorelines

feature of erosional shorelines

SEA ARCH
feature of erosional shorelines

feature of erosional shorelines

SEA STACK
feature of erosional shorelines

feature of erosional shorelines

BEACH DRIFT
when waves move shoreline sediments in a zig-zag pattern down the beach

when waves move shoreline sediments in a zig-zag pattern down the beach

LONGSHORE CURRENTS
when waves move sediment offshore parallel to coast

when waves move sediment offshore parallel to coast

BAR
feature of depositional shorelines

feature of depositional shorelines

SPIT
feature of depositional shorelines

feature of depositional shorelines

BARRIER ISLANDS
feature of depositional shorelines

feature of depositional shorelines

HARD STABILIZATION
any method of preventing shoreline erosion that includes building physical structures

any method of preventing shoreline erosion that includes building physical structures

GROINS
barrier built perpendicular to beach to prevent waves from moving sand downbeach

barrier built perpendicular to beach to prevent waves from moving sand downbeach

BREAKWATER
barrier built parallel to beach to block waves

barrier built parallel to beach to block waves

SEAWALL
barrier built along beach to protect waves from collapsing sea cliffs that hold up structures

barrier built along beach to protect waves from collapsing sea cliffs that hold up structures

BEACH NOURISHMENT
literally just dumping sand on an eroding beach, very expensive and temporary

literally just dumping sand on an eroding beach, very expensive and temporary

RELOCATION
moving structures at risk of eroding into the ocean

moving structures at risk of eroding into the ocean

EMERGENT COASTLINE
shoreline exposed due to lowering sea level (or tectonic activity uplifting shore), uplifted wave platforms make distinctive terraces

shoreline exposed due to lowering sea level (or tectonic activity uplifting shore), uplifted wave platforms make distinctive terraces

SUBMERGENT COASTLINE
shoreline being submerged due to rising sea level or subsiding land

shoreline being submerged due to rising sea level or subsiding land

ESTUARY
feature of submergent shoreline, when a river inlet sinks under water

feature of submergent shoreline, when a river inlet sinks under water

FJORD
feature of submergent shoreline, when a glacial valley sinks under water

feature of submergent shoreline, when a glacial valley sinks under water

MILFORD FJORD, NEW ZEALAND
example of a submergent coastline

example of a submergent coastline

WEATHER
short term local condition

short term local condition

CLIMATE
long term conditions over a larger area

long term conditions over a larger area

AIR
a mix of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and Argon, CO2, etc.

a mix of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and Argon, CO2, etc.

WATER VAPOR
water in gas form, absorbs heat in atmosphere, forms clouds, not constant

water in gas form, absorbs heat in atmosphere, forms clouds, not constant

AEROSOLS
tiny solid and liquid particles that water vapor can condense on

tiny solid and liquid particles that water vapor can condense on

OZONE
O3, found in high amounts between 10 and 50km elevation, important layer because it absorbs UV radiation

O3, found in high amounts between 10 and 50km elevation, important layer because it absorbs UV radiation

AIR PRESSURE

weight of air pressing on Earth, lower at higher altitudes

weight of air pressing on Earth, lower at higher altitudes

TROPOSPHERE
bottom layer of atmosphere (based on temperature), higher = colder

bottom layer of atmosphere (based on temperature), higher = colder

STRATOSPHERE
above Troposphere, contains ozone layer, higher = warmer

above Troposphere, contains ozone layer, higher = warmer

MESOSPHERE
above Stratosphere, higher = colder

above Stratosphere, higher = colder

THERMOSPHERE
highest atmospheric layer, almost no air and upper limit is undefined as it turns into outer space, very hot but because there's almost no air it would feel colder

highest atmospheric layer, almost no air and upper limit is undefined as it turns into outer space, very hot but because there's almost no air it would feel colder

INCLINATION
what the Earth is tilted at, roughly 23.5 degrees

what the Earth is tilted at, roughly 23.5 degrees

SUMMER SOLSTICE
first day of summer, longest day of the year, when sunlight hits the Tropic of Cancer head-on (at 90 degrees), Northern Hemisphere tilted toward sun

first day of summer, longest day of the year, when sunlight hits the Tropic of Cancer head-on (at 90 degrees), Northern Hemisphere tilted toward sun

TROPIC OF CANCER
latitude at 23.5 degrees North

latitude at 23.5 degrees North

WINTER SOLSTICE
first day of winter, shortest day of the year, when sunlight hits the Tropic of Capricorn head-on and the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun

first day of winter, shortest day of the year, when sunlight hits the Tropic of Capricorn head-on and the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
latitude at 23.5 degrees South

latitude at 23.5 degrees South

AUTUMNAL EQUINOX
first day of fall, day and night are equal in length, sunlight hits equator head-on

first day of fall, day and night are equal in length, sunlight hits equator head-on

VERNAL EQUINOX
first day of spring, day and night are equal in length, sunlight hits equator head-on

first day of spring, day and night are equal in length, sunlight hits equator head-on

CONDUCTION
when heat transfers from warmer to cooler objects via molecular activity

when heat transfers from warmer to cooler objects via molecular activity

CONVECTION
heat transfer via cyclical movement as warm stuff rises and cool stuff sinks

heat transfer via cyclical movement as warm stuff rises and cool stuff sinks

RADIATION
heat transfer due to energy transmitted via rays, waves, particles

heat transfer due to energy transmitted via rays, waves, particles

WAVELENGTHS
how we differentiate types of radiation, the longer the wavelength the lower the energy and "colder" it is

how we differentiate types of radiation, the longer the wavelength the lower the energy and "colder" it is
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
the spectrum of radiation according to wavelength, includes x rays, visible light, infrared, and radio

the spectrum of radiation according to wavelength, includes x rays, visible light, infrared, and radio

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
when the Earth reflects shortwave radiation, the reflected radiation has a longer wavelength and can be absorbed by CO2 and water vapor, heating the atmosphere

when the Earth reflects shortwave radiation, the reflected radiation has a longer wavelength and can be absorbed by CO2 and water vapor, heating the atmosphere

TEMPERATURE ON EARTH
controlled by solar radiation and how quickly an area will heat or cool, land heats faster, gets hotter and vice versa, while water temperature changes slower

controlled by solar radiation and how quickly an area will heat or cool, land heats faster, gets hotter and vice versa, while water temperature changes slower

ALBEDO
how reflective something is, clouds and ice caps are highly reflective, forests and ocean are less reflective

how reflective something is, clouds and ice caps are highly reflective, forests and ocean are less reflective

PRECIPITATION
water falling out of the sky

water falling out of the sky

HUMIDITY
actual amount of water vapor in air

actual amount of water vapor in air

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
amount of water vapor in air compared to how much it can hold (hotter air can hold more)

amount of water vapor in air compared to how much it can hold (hotter air can hold more)

DEW POINT
temperature at which air is saturated and water will precipitate out as dew, clouds, and fog

temperature at which air is saturated and water will precipitate out as dew, clouds, and fog

CLOUDS
tiny drops of water or ice suspended in air

tiny drops of water or ice suspended in air

CONDENSATION NUCLEI
particle that water can precipitate onto, incudes dust, smoke, salt, bacteria

particle that water can precipitate onto, incudes dust, smoke, salt, bacteria

ADIABATIC HEATING/COOLING
when temperature changes due to pressure increase or decrease, regardless of heat, ie compressed air will be hotter,

when temperature changes due to pressure increase or decrease, regardless of heat, ie compressed air will be hotter,

AIR PARCELS
packets of air that respond independently of other air masses

packets of air that respond independently of other air masses

OROGRAPHIC LIFTING
higher elevations (mountains) push air upwards, causing lower pressure and thus cooling and condensation, forming clouds

higher elevations (mountains) push air upwards, causing lower pressure and thus cooling and condensation, forming clouds

RAIN SHADOW
when wind tends to push wet air up a mountain range, forming clouds and precipitation, the other side of the mountains = dry

when wind tends to push wet air up a mountain range, forming clouds and precipitation, the other side of the mountains = dry

FRONTAL WEDGING
when mass of heavy cold air and light warm air collide, hot air will rise and cool due to pressure change, forming clouds

when mass of heavy cold air and light warm air collide, hot air will rise and cool due to pressure change, forming clouds

CONVERGENCE
when two air parcels collide, forcing each other to rise and form clouds

when two air parcels collide, forcing each other to rise and form clouds

CONVECTIVE LIFTING
uneven heating on Earth's surface causes parcel of warm air to rise = clouds

uneven heating on Earth's surface causes parcel of warm air to rise = clouds

CIRRUS CLOUDS
very high, thin, white, wispy clouds

very high, thin, white, wispy clouds

CUMULUS
low, flat bottomed, bulbous clouds

low, flat bottomed, bulbous clouds

STRATUS
low and indistinct cloud layer = "overcast"

low and indistinct cloud layer = "overcast"

VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT
low based and high topped clouds, typically associated with thunderstorms

low based and high topped clouds, typically associated with thunderstorms

FOG
a cloud that forms at ground level

a cloud that forms at ground level

MIST
very fine precipitation, can only be felt when moving

very fine precipitation, can only be felt when moving

DRIZZLE
small rain drops from stratus clouds

small rain drops from stratus clouds

RAIN
from low level clouds and vertically developed clouds

from low level clouds and vertically developed clouds

SLEET
solid rain, formed when rain freezes as it falls

solid rain, formed when rain freezes as it falls

SNOW
solidified water vapor, technically a mineral

solidified water vapor, technically a mineral

HAIL
round ice pellets formed from convection in vertically developed clouds

round ice pellets formed from convection in vertically developed clouds

WIND
horizontal movement of air, caused by pressure gradients and solar radiation

horizontal movement of air, caused by pressure gradients and solar radiation

PRESSURE-GRADIENT FORCE
air flows from high pressure to low pressure areas
air flows from high pressure to low pressure areas

ISOBARS
how we mark air pressure on maps, look like a topographic map but for air pressure instead of elevation

how we mark air pressure on maps, look like a topographic map but for air pressure instead of elevation

CORIOLIS EFFECT
when Earth's rotation affects air (and water) movement

when Earth's rotation affects air (and water) movement

FRICTION
between land and air, influences wind patterns up to 1km high (not very high...), tends to slow wind

between land and air, influences wind patterns up to 1km high (not very high...), tends to slow wind

HIGH PRESSURE AREA

air is falling, causing clear skies

LOW PRESSURE AREA
air is rising, causes clouds

air is rising, causes clouds

WIND CONVECTION CELLS
three major areas of air convection in North and South Hemisphere

three major areas of air convection in North and South Hemisphere

HADLEY CELL
from the Equator to 30 degrees North or South, air rises at the Equator and descends at 30 degrees North or South

from the Equator to 30 degrees North or South, air rises at the Equator and descends at 30 degrees North or South

DOLDRUMS
low wind area at Equator, due to Hadley Convection Cell

low wind area at Equator, due to Hadley Convection Cell

TRADE WINDS
move west between Equator and 30 degrees North or South, due to Hadley Convection Cell

move west between Equator and 30 degrees North or South, due to Hadley Convection Cell

HORSE LATITUDES
low wind area at 30 degrees North or South, due to Hadley Convection Cell

low wind area at 30 degrees North or South, due to Hadley Convection Cell

FERREL CELL
between 30 and 60 degrees North or South

between 30 and 60 degrees North or South

WESTERLIES
wind that moves west to east between 30 and 60 degrees North or South, due to Ferrel Convection Cell

wind that moves west to east between 30 and 60 degrees North or South, due to Ferrel Convection Cell

POLAR CELL
wind convection cell between 60 and 90 degrees North or South

wind convection cell between 60 and 90 degrees North or South

POLAR EASTERLIES
wind moves east to west around North and South poles due to Polar Convection Cells

wind moves east to west around North and South poles due to Polar Convection Cells

MONSOONS
seasonal wind reversals that bring large amounts of precipitation as wind moves away from land in winter, toward land in summer

seasonal wind reversals that bring large amounts of precipitation as wind moves away from land in winter, toward land in summer

ENSO
El Niño and the Southern Oscillation, an atypical ocean temperature pattern that affects weather

El Niño and the Southern Oscillation, an atypical ocean temperature pattern that affects weather

EL NIÑO
anomalous warming of surface water in the eastern equatorial Pacific

anomalous warming of surface water in the eastern equatorial Pacific

SOUTHERN OSCILLATION
causes El Niño every three to seven years as pressure in changes in western equatorial Pacific

causes El Niño every three to seven years as pressure in changes in western equatorial Pacific

AIR MASSES
huge body of air 1600+ km wide, signified by similar temperatures and moisture levels, affect weather on large scale

huge body of air 1600+ km wide, signified by similar temperatures and moisture levels, affect weather on large scale

SOURCE REGION
where an air mass comes from indicates temperature/moisture and it's affect, categorized as polar or tropical and maritime or continental

where an air mass comes from indicates temperature/moisture and it's affect, categorized as polar or tropical and maritime or continental

POLAR AIR MASS
air that originates from extreme north or south latitude will be cold

air that originates from extreme north or south latitude will be cold

TROPICAL AIR MASS
air that originates from equatorial latitudes will be warm

air that originates from equatorial latitudes will be warm

MARITIME AIR MASS
air that originates from over the ocean will have more moisture

air that originatesfrom over the ocean will have more moisture

CONTINENTAL AIR MASS
 air that originates over land will be dryer

air that originates over land will be dryer

FRONTS
the boundary between air masses of different densities, typically many kms long, will indicate weather changes

the boundary between air masses of different densities, typically many kms long, will indicate weather changes

WARM FRONT
warm air replaces cool, slopes upward at a shallow angle = slow moving clouds that cause precipitation over a few days

warm air replaces cool, slopes upward at a shallow angle = slow moving clouds that cause precipitation over a few days

COLD FRONT
cold air replaces warm, extremely steep sloping = more precipitation over a short amount of time

cold air replaces warm, extremely steep sloping = more precipitation over a short amount of time

MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES
large centers of low pressure cause air to spiral inward = weather over the course of a week or more

large centers of low pressure cause air to spiral inward = weather over the course of a week or more

THUNDERSTORMS
vertical air movement making thunderheads, forms when moist/warm air rises quickly

vertical air movement making thunderheads, forms when moist/warm air rises quickly

TORNADOES
extreme low pressure area associated with supercell, spinning upward at up to 300 mph, notice bump at the top of a flat top of a thunderhead

extreme low pressure area associated with supercell, spinning upward at up to 300 mph, notice bump at the top of a flat top of a thunderhead

SUPERCELL
extreme low pressure area that forms along with big thunderstorms

extreme low pressure area that forms along with big thunderstorms

HURRICANES (TYPHOONS)
largest storms on earth, form at equatorial latitudes from moist/warm maritime tropical air, giant cyclones where air moves up to 185 mph = flooding and winds

largest storms on earth, form at equatorial latitudes from moist/warm maritime tropical air, giant cyclones where air moves up to 185 mph = flooding and winds

STORMSURGE
hurricane winds kick up huge waves, pushed inland = flooding, the most deadly aspect of a hurricane (90% of deaths)

hurricane winds kick up huge waves, pushed inland = flooding, the most deadly aspect of a hurricane (90% of deaths)

HURRICANE SANDY
second largest Atlantic hurricane, 253 deaths

second largest Atlantic hurricane, 253 deaths

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
occurs naturally when solar radiation gets absorbed by gasses in Earth's atmosphere (H20, CO2)

occurs naturally when solar radiation gets absorbed by gasses in Earth's atmosphere (H20, CO2)

INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)
a consensus of dozens of countries, hundreds of scientists, and thousands of climate studies that aggregates research, recommendations, and predictions about climate change

a consensus of dozens of countries, hundreds of scientists, and thousands of climate studies that aggregates research, recommendations, and predictions about climate change

ANTHROPOGENIC
means caused by humans, look at carbon isotopes in the atmosphere to determine their source, rising levels of carbon 12 which can only come from fossil fuels

means caused by humans, look at carbon isotopes in the atmosphere to determine their source, rising levels of carbon 12 which can only come from fossil fuels

FOSSIL FUELS
oil, gas, and coal, limited resources used for fuel which produce carbon dioxide and carbon 12 when burnt (pic: overhead map of fracking wells in part of Uintah Basin, UT/CO)

oil, gas, and coal, limited resources used for fuel which produce carbon dioxide and carbon 12 when burnt (pic: overhead map of fracking wells in part of Uintah Basin, UT/CO)

THERMAL EXPANSION OF WATER
 global sea level rise exacerbated by expansion of heated ocean water (oceans absorb 90% of excess heat produced by global warming)

global sea level rise exacerbated by expansion of heated ocean water (oceans absorb 90% of excess heat produced by global warming)

ARCTIC SEA ICE
 northern ice cap, melting at a rate of 13% per decade, exacerbates global warming by eliminating reflective area which abated solar radiation

northern ice cap, melting at a rate of 13% per decade, exacerbates global warming by eliminating reflective area which abated solar radiation

CARBON DIOXIDE
 produced by natural processes and the burning of fossil fuels, insulates atmosphere, trapping solar radiation and contributing to global warming

produced by natural processes and the burning of fossil fuels, insulates atmosphere, trapping solar radiation and contributing to global warming

METHANE

 ...

greenhouse gas some 20 times more effective and trapping heat than carbon dioxide, a byproduct of livestock and rotting plant life (ie landfills, melting permafrost, rice paddies)

NITROUS OXIDE
 greenhouse gas, a byproduct of fertilizer

greenhouse gas, a byproduct of fertilizer

ANTHROPOGENIC OZONE
 ...

greenhouse gas created by humans, as a byproduct of industrial processes

OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
 carbon dioxide in atmosphere affects the pH of oceans, highest natural level recorded was decrease of .5 at 300 million years ago, at current rate its set to decrease by .6 in 300 years, degrades shells of ocean critters

carbon dioxide in atmosphere affects the pH of oceans, highest natural level recorded was decrease of .5 at 300 million years ago, at current rate its set to decrease by .6 in 300 years, degrades shells of ocean critters

PERMAFROST

 area of permanently frozen ground in the Northern Hemisphere, global warming causing melting, which causes rotting and the release of methane, risk for runaway greenhouse effect

area of permanently frozen ground in the Northern Hemisphere, global warming causing melting, which causes rotting and the release of methane, risk for runaway greenhouse effect

CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS)
 tech that removes carbon dioxide from the air and buries it underground, a possible mitigation measure for global warming

tech that removes carbon dioxide from the air and buries it underground, a possible mitigation measure for global warming