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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Be familiar with the basic parts of a neuron
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Neuron:
-Neuron: Brain cell that analyzes and transmits information via chemical and electrical signals. -Dendrites: Treelike region of a neuron that extends from the cell body and contains in its membrane receptors that recognize and respond to specific chemical signals. -Axon: A region of a neuron that extends from the cell body and is responsible for conducing the electrical signal to the presynaptic terminals. Cell body- contain nucleus and other substances that sustain the neuron Presynaptic terminals- bublous structures located at the end of the axon, where chemical messsengers are stored in small, round packages, called vesicles. |
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the Functions of different types of glia cells
-Astrocytes |
Glia:
-Astrocytes: form part of blood-brain barrier; remove excess NTs at synapse; guide axon growth |
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Functions of each major part of the brain Cerebrum:
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-Cerebrum:
-interpretation of ideas and concepts - intellectual activity -reasoning and judgment -understanding language -expressing oneself through language -planning activity -inhibition of inappropriate behavior -voluntary motor control -interpretation of sensory stimuli (visual, sounds, tastes, smells, tactile) |
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Limbic System
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-The emotional brain
-Regulation of: -hunger and thirst -body temp -sexual behavior -emotion, fear, anxiety, happiness -feelings of pleasure -memory for location -hormone activity |
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Cerebellum
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general motor coordination
-general control of posture -maintaining balance |
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-Brain Stem
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-basic life support
-regulation of heartbeat (stimulates . . . inhibits) -regulation of breathing(stimulates. . . inhibits) -vomiting reflex -waking & sleeping |
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One route of administration (injection) will be selected.
LIST pros and cons for clinical use. Be as complete as possible. (p. 111-116; and online notes) |
PROS:
-Fast transit to bloodstream -By-passes digestion -No gastric irritation -No coordination with meals -Administered to almost all CONS: -Special equipment and training -Transfer infections |
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One route of administration (inhalation) will be selected.
LIST pros and cons for clinical use. Be as complete as possible. (p. 111-116; and online notes) |
PROS:
-Fast to blood stream -Fastest to brain -By-passes digestion -No gastric irritation -No need to coordinate with meals -No special equipment or training CONS: -Can not be administered to all -Not effective with most drugs -Dose regulation may be difficult -Possible respiratory damage |
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Transdermal
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PROS:
-Passes digestive system -No gastric irritation -No need to coordinate with meals -No special equipment -Administer to most -Great dose regulation CONS: - ?? |
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Regarding oral administration specifically, how might GI tract environment and functions interfere with drug absorption and action? List and briefly explain the GI-related drawbacks associated with oral administration. --------------- 3 POINTS
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-There could be possible gastric irritation. Absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is the most complicated way to enter the blood stream. A chemical must withstand the stomach acid, and the digestive enzymes and NOT be deactivated by food before it is absorbed. You may have to coordinate with meals. The drug you are taking my be all digested, and you may not get the effect of the drug. The person may vomit, get nauseous, or have dysphagia.
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Regarding recreational and illicit drug use, how is “route of administration” related to maximizing the desired effect? i.e., How is route of administration important in "getting high"? --------------- 1 POINT
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-The route of administration is important to the user because different routes will give you different effects. If someone wants a very fast effect they may want to try IV injection or inhalation, however if they want a slower effect they may want to try subcutaneous injection.
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2. List 4 ways that the blood-brain barrier be damaged--------------- 2 POINTS
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-Hypertension
-Dehydration -Microwaves -Radiation -Brain edema - Inflammation -Ischemia - Poisoning -Brain infection -Tumors -Head Injury |
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Life cycle of neurotransmitters
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Life Cycle:
-Synthesis of NT’s from precursors -Storage of NT’s in vesicles -Release of NT’s into synaptic space -Actions at postsynaptic receptors -Reuptake by presynaptic neuron -Metabolism/inactivation of NT’s -Removal of NT’s via diffusion and glia -Down-regulation of NT synthesis & release via presynaptic autoreceptors (feedback) |
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effects of drugs
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Drugs can affect ANY aspect of NT synthesis, storage, release, reuptake, metabolism, regulation or any function at the postsynaptic receptors.
-Generally, drugs interfere with: –availability of NT’s –action of NT’s at receptors |
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Explain the Processes involved in NT synthesis and storage:
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-Synthesis: the forming of a neurotransmitter by the action of enzymes on precursors
-Storage: Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles near the terminal from which they will be released. This storage process also calls for recognizing the transmitter molecules and concentrating them inside the vesicles. |
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Explain how drugs alter the availability of NTs in the nervous system. (p. 94-95)
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-Drugs alter the availability of the neurotransmitter in the synapse. Either the amount of transmitter in the synapse, when it is released, or how long it remains before being cleared from the synapse will be affected. The second way is on the drug’s receptors
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Explain how drugs alter the NT receptors in the nervous system. (p. 95-96)
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-A drug can be an agonist or an antagonist. Agonist’s mimic the action of the neurotransmitter and antagonists occupy the receptor to prevent the neurotransmitter from activating it.
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-In specific terms, explain the 2 main effects of neurotransmitters at the receptor sites on postsynaptic neuron. In other words, what happens at the post-synaptic neuron after the neurotransmitter crosses the synapse.
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-The neurotransmitter distorts the receptor so that a tiny passage is opened through the membrane. The postsynaptic cell can either become more or less excitable, and thus more or less likely to initiate an action potential.
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List 4 common symptoms of an adverse drug reaction that may occur because of age related changes affecting drug pharmacokinetcis
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-Disorientation
-Depression -Loss of appetite -Forgetfulness -Sleep disturbances -Slurred speech -Unsteady gait -Urinary retention -Confusion -Lethargy -Tremor -Constipation -Diarrhea -Paranoia -Hostility |
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Grandpa Eli, 78 years old, and his 24-year-old grandson Billy are both feeling a little sick. They each take the recommended adult dose of a popular over-the-counter drug and go to bed.
Compared to Billy, how has Grandpa Eli’s body changed over time in ways that will affect . . . METABOLISM of the drug |
As you get older, your hepatic mass goes down, and your hepatic blood flow goes down, and you have lower hepatic enzyme activity.
As you get older your renal function goes down, your renal blood flow goes down, and you have loss of integrity or function of renal tubules over time. |
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1. Why are certain drugs defined as psychoactive?
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Because they have their principle effect on the CNS. They alter ongoing functions of the brain.
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Dopamine
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Neurotransmitter found in the basal ganglia and other regions.
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Acetylcholine
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Neurotransmitter found in the parasympathetic branch in the cerebral cortex
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Norepinephrine
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Neurotransmitter that may be important for regulating walking and appetite
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Serotonin
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Neurotransmitter found in the raphe nuclei, may be important for impulsivity and depression.
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GABA
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Inhibitory neurotransmitter found in most regions of the brain.
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Glutamate
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Excitatory neurotransmitter found in most regions of the brain
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Endorphins
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Opiate-like chemical that occurs naturally in the brain of humans and other animals.
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5. What term refers to the sites on a target cell that detect the presence of, and respond to, signal molecules?
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Receptors
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6. Be able to identify the functions governed by the central, somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
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Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord
Somatic Nervous System: The part of the NS that controls voluntary, skeletal muscles, such as the large muscles of the arms and legs. Autonomic Nervous System: The branch of the NS that regulates visceral or automatic functions of the body such as heart rate and intestinal motility. (INVOLUNTARY) |
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7. Which system controls nerves that carry sensory information into the CNS and regulate voluntary responses?
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Somatic NS
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8. Which system interprets and coordinates input from, and output to, the skin, joints, muscles and sensory organs?
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Central NS (?)
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9. Which system controls basic involuntary organ functions like heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate and digestion?
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Autonomic NS
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10. Be familiar with actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous systems in the initiation and recovery phases of the "fight or flight" response. Study chart 4.1 and be ready to identify and classify examples.
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Sympathetic: The branch of the autonomic NS involved in flight or fight reactions.
Parasympathetic: The branch of the autonomic NS that stimulates digestion, slows the heart, and has other effects associated with a relaxed physiological state. (look at chart pg 86) |
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What is homeostasis? Explain why is it necessary?
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Maintenance of an environment of body functions within a certain range (temperature and bp) It is necessary because regulates our body functions by keeping them within a survivable range.
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13. Identify the two (2) general types of cells in the nervous system.
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Glia and Neurons
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14. What are the main functions of neuroglia (glial cells) in the brain?
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Brain cells that provide firmness and structure to the brain, get nutrients into the system, eliminate waste, form myelin, and create the blood brain barrier.
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NEUROTRANSMITTER LIFE CYCLE
How are precursor molecules taken into the presynaptic neuron? |
Uptake: energy requiring mechanism by which selected molecules are taken into cells.
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How are neurotransmitters synthesized?
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Synthesis: The forming of a neurotransmitter by the action of enzymes on precursors.
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After a neurotransmitter is synthesized, where is it stored while awaiting release?
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Vesicles
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What triggers the process of neurotransmitter release?
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Action Potential causes Calcium channels to open. Calcium enters the cells and assists the movement of the small vesicles filled with neurotransmitter toward the pre-synaptic terminal membrane so that the neurotransmitter is released into the synapse.
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What happens to “assist” movement of vesicles toward the terminal membrane?
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Calcium
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How many neurotransmitters are generally released into the synapse?
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Several Thousand
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When a neurotransmitter binds with a receptor, what happens to the membrane?
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The neurotransmitter distorts the receptor so that a tiny passage is opened through the membrane, allowing ions to move through the membrane.
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What two types of actions can occur when a NT binds to a postsynaptic receptor?
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More Excitable/Excitatory (Likely to initiate action potential), or Less Excitable/Inhibitory (less likely to initiate action potential).
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Why must NTs be removed from a synapse immediately after the neuron fires
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So the next signal can be transmitted
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17. Why does the NT acetylcholine stimulate SKELETAL muscle contraction, but inhibit CARDIAC muscle contraction?
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A different type of receptor is found in the heart. Electrical activity in the vagus nerve causes a chemical to be released onto the heart. AKA “vagusstoffe.”
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18. What is the function of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system?
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The branch of the ANS involved in flight or fight
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Which neurotransmitter activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS?
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Norepinephrine
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What is the function of the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system?
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The branch of the ANS that stimulates digestion, slows the heart, and has other effects associated with a relaxed physiological state.
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Which neurotransmitter activates the parasympathetic branch of the ANS?
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Acetylcholine.
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What is the function of the basal ganglia?
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The maintenance of proper muscles tone
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Which neurotransmitter is active in the function of the basal ganglia?
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Dopamine
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What neurotransmitter seems to have only inhibitory receptors?
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GABA
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. Once a drug enters the bloodstream, where does it go?
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It goes EVERYWHERE.
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Once a drug enters the brain, where does it act, or have an effect? Explain.
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It depends on what the drug effects, for example, LSD has their effect by acting on serotonin systems, which means it affects the brain systems that depend on serotonin.
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1. Be familiar with the drug naming system, including generic name, brand name and chemical name.
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Brand names belong to one company; the generic name for a chemical may be used by many companies.
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2. With regard to drug effects, what is the "grapefruit juice effect"?
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Some people believe that grapefruit juice will boost the absorption of some commonly prescribed drugs BUT in reality is can be dangerous because the juice can raise blood concentrations of the drug beyond what the dosage calls for.
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3. Many drug classifications described are intuitively understandable; why do nicotine and marijuana NOT fit neatly into these classifications?
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Nicotine is often thought of as a mild stimulant, but it also seems to have some of the relaxant properties of a low dose depressant. Marijuana is often thought of as a relaxant, depressive type of drug, but it does not share most of the features of its class. It is sometimes listed among the hallucinogens because at high doses it can produce altered perceptions.
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4. What is a placebo? What is a placebo effect?
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Placebo is an inactive drug. A placebo effect is a non-specific effect because that can often be produced by an inactive chemical that the user believes to be a drug.
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5. What is a double-blind experiment as it relates to drug research?
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Is an experiment in which neither the doctor nor the patient knows which drug is being used.
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6. How is the safety margin of a drug measured?
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A safety margin is a dosage difference between an acceptable level of effectiveness and the lowest toxic dose.
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7. To what would the abbreviated term ‘’ED 25’’ refer? "ED 60? LD 75?
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ED25: effective dose for a quarter of the animals tested
ED 60: effective dose for 60% of animals tested. |
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8. What does LD refer to in drug tests using animals? Why are animals or computers used instead of humans for determining LD?
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Lethal Dose, Animals and computers are used because we do not want to kill our own people.
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9. With regard to drug effects, be ready to define drug potency and time course.
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Drug Potency: Measured by the amount of drug required to produce and effect.
Time Course: Timing of the onset, duration, and termination of a drug’s effect. |
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10. Given a choice of the faster and slower routes of drug administration, be prepared to rate them for speed in reaching the brain.
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Oral Administration: Meduim
Injection: Fast -Intravenous: Very Fast, directly into blood stream. -Intramuscular: Fast. (deltoid) -Subcutaneous: SLOW (days – weeks) Inhalation: Quite Rapid because capillary walls are very accessible by the lungs. (fastest to the brain) Anal Suppository: Medium Transdermal: Even rate of drug deliverance. |
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11. Drug absorption is most rapid when the intramuscular injection is into which muscle group?
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Deltoid muscle of the arm
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12. Drug absorption is slowest when the intramuscular injection is into which muscle group?
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Buttocks
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13. How long does it take for blood to circulate from the lungs to the brain? How does this affect reinforcement?
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5-8 seconds
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What are the benefits and limitations associated with inhalation as a method of drug administration?
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Benefits: onset is rapid
Limitations: The material must not be irritating to mucus membranes and lungs. Control of the dose is more difficult than with other drug delivery systems. There is no depot of drug in the body. |
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With regard to cocaine administration, why is transmucosal administration (aka, intranasal, insufflation) effective for producing euphoria?
See also: Lecture notes regarding Routes of Drug Administration--benefits and drawbacks in clinical applications |
It goes directly to the brain.
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When a drug enters the bloodstream, usually its molecules attach to one of the protein molecules. What is the most common protein to which the molecules attach?
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Plasma
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Describe the composition and the function of the blood-brain barrier.
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The blood-brain barrier keeps certain classes of compounds in the blood and away from the brain cells, that being said some drugs act only on neurons outside the central nervous system, that is only on those in the peripheral nervous system, whereas others may affect all neurons.
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With regard to drug deactivation, what is an active metabolite versus an inactive metabolite?
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Active: Pharmacologically active chemicals formed when enzymes in the body act on a drug.
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What are the 3 types of drug tolerance? Be ready to identify examples of each.
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1. Drug disposition tolerance: Increased rate of metabolism/ deactivation and removal of the drug (broken down by liver enzymes), in response to increased presence of the drug.
2. Behavioral tolerance: Purposeful learning or attempts to adapt/ compensate for the effect of a drug-altered state (intoxication). 3. Pharmacodynamic tolerance: Cellular level nervous tissue/brain adaptations or accommodations to the continued presence of a drug. |
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Migroglia part of gila
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immune function; protect against microorganisms and remove cellular waste
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-Ependymal Cells part of gilia
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-Oligodendrocytes: wrap around some axons to form myelin sheath; speeds impulses 30X
-Migroglia: immune function; protect against microorganisms and remove cellular waste -Ependymal Cells: line brain cavities and ventricles of the CNS; and secrete cerebrospinal fluid |
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Oligodendrocytes part of gilia
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wrap around some axons to form myelin sheath; speeds impulses 30X
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