Diversity

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Diversity Learning Goals

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• Identity and define the various important terms related to diversity in psychology
• Summarize the difficulties with terminology in the psychological literature as discussed by scholars such as Sue and Phinney
• Summarize the most pertinent ethical issues related to diversity that they would encounter in their work as a practicing community/clinical psychologist (e.g. clinical, consultation, research setting)
• Summarize the history of how the field of psychology has focused on culturally diverse populations (i.e. the various psychological models utilized to describe culturally diverse populations)
• Summarize Sue’s discussion of internal and external validity of traditional research methods as applied to ethnic minority populations
• Summarize the major theories of stereotyping
• Summarize the major theories of acculturation
• Summarize the major theories of racial and ethnic identity development
• Apply theories of acculturation, racial/ethnic identity to themselves
• Apply theories of acculturation, racial/ethnic identity to clients/consultees
• Summarize the history of how sexual orientation has been discussed in psychology

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Bell hooks (2000) Chapter 2:

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liberal vs radical feminism

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Most people in the U.S. think of feminism as

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a movement that aims to make women the social equals of men. However, men are not equals in white supremacist, capitalist, patriarchical class structure. So what do women want to be equal to?

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Women in lower class and poor groups, particularly those who are non white, would not

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define women’s liberation as women gaining social equality with men, since they are continually reminded in their everyday lives that all women do not share a common social status.

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Radical feminism is

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working for the eradication of domination and elitism in all human relationships. This would make self determination the ultimate good and require the downfall of society as we know it today.

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Many liberal feminist reforms simply

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reinforced capitalist, materialistic values, without truly liberating women economically.

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Race and class oppression are

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recognized as feminist oppression.

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Equating feminism with living in a countercultural, women centered world

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erected barriers that closed the movement off from most women.

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The majority of women who equate feminism with alternative lifestyle are

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from middle class backgrounds, unmarried, college educated, often students who are without many of the social and economic responsibilities that working class and poor women who are laborers, parents, homemakers and wives confront daily.

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Many black women and women from other ethnic groups do not

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feel an absence of community among women in their lives.

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Feminist movement to end sexist oppression actively

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engages participants in revolutionary struggle.

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Instead of using the phrase “I am a feminist,” which refers to some personal aspect of identity, we could

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state, “I advocate feminism,” implies a support of feminism as a political commitment.

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Why is Multiculturalism Good?

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Fowers & Richardson, 1996, The Rationale for a Multicultural Psychology

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Definition of Multiculturalism:

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Multiculturalism is a social/intellectual movement that promotes the value of diversity as a core principle and insists that all cultural groups be treated with respect and as equals.

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Psychology claims to be

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a science of human behavior that promotes human welfare, yet it neglects important cultural factors and issues in much of its research.

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Psychology's promotion of human welfare is undermined by

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Universalist aims and color blindness, which have perpetuated racism in blinding us to the discrimination that is an everyday experience for members of minority groups.

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Psychology seeks to provide a critical perspective that

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actively fights against political oppression & economic injury.

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Multiculturalism promises

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cultural blossoming (enrichment provided by cross cultural interactions)

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Multiculturalism advocates that

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cultural groups have the right to be different.

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Multiculturalism admonishes us because

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we have not fulfilled modern ideals of equality.

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Multiculturalism strives to contextualize

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the individual and group with respect to culture and history, but it generally fails to be self reflective about its contextual sources.

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Multiculturalists have good reason to criticize the United States, but they should

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acknowledge their intellectual and moral indebtedness to it. In fact, the authors suggest, that in denying respect and honor to Euro American groups, multiculturalists fail to fulfill their ideals of multiculturalism that claims to respect what is valuable in all cultural groups.

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The authors state that proponents of multiculturalism often demonstrate

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a double standard in how they evaluate majority and minority cultures. To the extent that multiculturalism promotes separatism and self protection, it loses sight of the continual dialogue between subcultures and larger cultures and the ways that this dialogue inescapably defines us.

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As a multiculturalist, it is not possible to

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impose one's ideals of tolerance and respect on others who hold ethnocentric or racist views. And thus, it pits two of our deepest ethical principles against each other in a profoundly wretched manner. The ideal of tolerance and respect of all cultures (even those that might do things that we think are morally wrong), and the ideals of equality, justice, individual rights, and the alleviation of suffering.

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A Hermeneutic Perspective (Hermeneutics = Interpretation)

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The authors instruct that to evaluate different cultural perspectives requires a "commitment to openness and the willingness to place one's own perspective in critical dialogue with others."

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There will be differences and moral clashes between cultures which should

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not be ignored by taking the stance of relativism. They suggest that we deal with such conflicts by attempting a "fusion of horizons" with the other culture, which would maintain an appreciation of cultural differences while avoiding debilitating relativism

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Seeking to understand

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the motivations for and benefits of a practice within the culture's framework of meaning of the good life.

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Contributing to the dialogue by adding

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our cultural perspectives, and further understanding our view of the good life

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Reflect on our own practices

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as they are contrasted with those of the other culture.

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Constructing normalcy: The bell curve, the novel, and the invention of the disabled body in the 19th century

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Lennard Davis (2006)

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We live in a world of norms

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where we consider what the average person does, thinks, earns and consumes.

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To understand the disabled body, one must understand

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the construction of normalcy.

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The problem is not the person with disabilities, but rather

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the way normalcy is constructed to create a problem of the disabled person.

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Words such as “normal,” “average,” and “abnormal” entered European languages

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late in history (around 1850’s).

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Before the concept of the norm, the concept of the ___ was more prevalent.

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ideal. When you think about the ideal bodies, all members of the population are below the ideal. In contrast to the ideal, there was the idea of the grotesque: this signified common humanity. This is different from the idea of the disabled, which was formed as an exclusion from culture.

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The idea of the norm stems from

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statistics, a science that began in the late 1700’s. Quetlet, a statistician, came up with the idea of an average man, who was both physically and intellectually average. Marx also used the idea of an “average” worker, and that those who deviated from that average would balance each other out.

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The average became

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a kind of ideal. The concept of a norm implies that most of the population should be part of the norm.

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Almost all early statisticians were also

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eugenicists: the idea is to make more people fit the normal, and to eliminate “defectives.”

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Galton developed the idea of

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rank order, so that people who not be defined by the mediocre middle. Instead of being a deviation, high intelligence would be the highest ranked trait.

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Eugenicists began sterilization of people who were

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“feebleminded,” who were manic depressive, schizophrenic, epileptic, blind and deaf.

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Similarly, Freud created the concept of

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a psychologically and sexually normal person.

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On Being Useful: The Nature and Consequences of Psychological Research on Social Problems

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by Caplan & Nelson, 1973

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The application of psychological findings and thought to the improvement of societal functioning and human welfare is

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fraught with many potential problems.

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Two main issues:

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1. person blame causal attribution bias in psych research on social problems and 2. Utility and applicability of psychological thought and research to social problems

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“person-blame” causal attribution bias in psychological research on social problems

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Psychological research focuses on person centered characteristics while ignoring situationally relevant factors. Tendency to attribute causal significance to person centered variables found in statistical association with social problem in question.

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Utility and applicability of psychological thought and research to social problems.

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Political implications and partisan advantages of person blame interpretation.

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Reason that person vs. situation problem definitions are important

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What is done about a problem depends on how it is defined (e.g. if delinquency is seen as a person centered problem, then it would make sense to initiate person change treatment techniques. If it is seen as situation centered, then system change makes the most sense). Action or inaction taken will depend largely on whether causes are seen as residing within individuals or the environment. What you do about a problem also defines it.

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Once problem definitions are legitimated and acted upon, they tend to

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define the problem indefinitely, irrespective of their validity. They resist change. Program administrators and change agents develop a vested interest in maintaining established definitions, such their jobs, status power and the employment of subordinates may depend on those definitions being accepted as correct.
• People also tend to conform to problem definitions
• To the extent that problem definitions conform to dominant cultural myths, any change will be stubbornly resisted.
• Many groups have vested interest in seeing that certain definitions are accepted over others.
• An invalid person centered problem definition can also convince the target population of its blameworthiness.

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Findings of psychologically oriented research lend themselves more easily

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to person, rather than system blame problem definitions. Psych research plays a role in blaming people in difficult situations for their own predicament.

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Authors examined 6 months worth of psych abstracts from 1970 and looked at research dealing with black Americans. Found

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Vast majority of articles either explicitly or implicitly write from a person-blame framework.

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Person centered research findings lead quickly to

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person blame public interpretations

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The problems we study in psychology are often defined by

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public opinion and the current political atmosphere (why do we look at nonachievement of minority students as a problem, but not the illegal behaviors of top businessmen? Why look at drug use as a problem, and not the way the medical community drugs people as a problem?) Certain groups become continually stigmatized as problem groups, both because they are visible and accessible, and because they are vulnerable to the social scientists’ research interests. (much easier to research low achieving kids than slum landlords). Often problems are only studied if it is politically feasible to deal with it.

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Others can use psych research to further their goals

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Breakdowns in the political system lead to social problems. Then social scientists are called in to study these problems, but from a person centered perspective. Person blame research allows authorities to control troublesome segments of the population under the guise of being helpful.

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Major conclusion:

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Person blame interpretations are in everyone’s interests except those subjected to analysis.

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Bell hooks, Chapter 6 (2000)

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Changing Perspectives on Power

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In this society, power is commonly equated with

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domination and control over people or things.

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Radical feminism postulates that the domination of one human being by another is

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the basic evil in society. Dominance in human relationships is the target of their opposition.

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Women can gain power and prestige in the existing structure if they

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support that structure (for example, Sandra Day O’Connor was appointed to the supreme court. However, she does not support most reforms to allow women to have more control over their lives.)

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The feminist movement has traditionally seen

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all power as evil. Women have not recognized that power understood as strength, energy and effective interaction does not need to be the same as power that requires domination of others.

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The labor movement in the 30’s, and all of the movements of the 50’s and 60’s (black, youth, women’s) began by

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struggling for their own interests. None talked about real power, which involves the reconstruction of society for the benefit of the great majority and the advancement of humanity.

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Women must reject the notion that

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obtaining power in the existing social structure will advance feminist struggle to end sexist oppression. It will allow certain women to be richer, more powerful, but it will not end male domination as a system.

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Women do exercise some power, and these can be used

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to advance feminist struggle. One of the most significant power of the weak is the refusal to accept the definition of oneself put forth by the powerful. Women also may have traditionally assumed the passive role in relation to males, but no with each other, with their children, or with other individuals who have lower social status.

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The Discourse of Oppression in the Social Sciences: Past, Present and Future

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by Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1993

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Issues of power, resistance and domination are central to

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the promotion of human diversity

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The sources of oppression are

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internal as well as external.

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Reciprocal empowerment

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the authors’ prescription for promoting human welfare. This is where the pursuit of personal or collective power is moderated by the ethical imperative to give power and control to others who are in a less advantageous position.

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Oppression, as the antithesis of reciprocal empowerment, curtails

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self determination, perpetuates social injustice & suppresses the voices of vulnerable individuals

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Future approaches to study of oppression should be marked by:

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1. Interdisciplinary epistemology 2. Moral philosophy of praxis 3. Attention to oppression in global context 4. Support marginalized communities in strengthening their position of influence

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Reciprocal Empowerment Model: Values, Model of Reciprocal Empowerment, Human Diversity, and Oppression: 3 values

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1. Self determination, 2. Distributive justice, 3. Collaboration and democratic participation

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Self determination: 1. Definition, 2. Model of Reciprocal Empowerment, 3. Human Diversity, and 4. Oppression

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1. individual’s ability to pursue chosen goals without excessive frustration. 2. Power to give oneself and others the ability to define identity, 3. Celebration of uniqueness and affirmation of identity despite differences. 4. Externally produced and internalized negative view of oneself.

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Distributive justice: 1. Definition, 2. Model of Reciprocal Empowerment, 3. Human Diversity, and 4. Oppression

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1. Guides the fair and equitable allocation of burdens and resources in society. 2. The power to give to oneself and others sufficient resources 3. Recognition of diversity as a resource and fair allocation of goods and burdens despite differences. 4. Externally produced and internalized view of oneself as not deserving more resources.

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Collaboration and democratic participation: 1. Definition, 2. Model of Reciprocal Empowerment, 3. Human Diversity, and 4. Oppression

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1. n/a 2. The power to give to oneself and others a voice in society 3. Equal participation in decision making processes despite differences. 4. Externally produced and internalized view of one’s own voice as unimportant.

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Philosophy of Reciprocal Empowerment calls for those already empowered to:

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1. Strive to disempower those who resist sharing resources 2. Share their power with vulnerable communities

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Reciprocal empowerment calls for

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the representation of marginalized voices (called a decentered dialogue)

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Organize according to

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purpose process and content

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Purpose of theory

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remove internal/external barriers hindering full development as human beings

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Process

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listening to voices of oppressed groups, collaboration, shared control

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Content

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interdisciplinary and grounded theory approach should be used

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Racism as a Stressor for African Americans: A Biopsychosocial Model

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by Clark, Anderson, Clark & Williams, 1999

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Interethnic group and intraethnic group racism are

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significant stressors for many African Americans

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May play a role in the high rates of

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morbidity and mortality in this population

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Few researchers have explored

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the psychological, social and physiological effects of perceived racism among African Americans.

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Purpose of this article to outline

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a biopsychosocial model for perceived racism as a guide for future research.

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Racism defined as

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beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation. (this is a comprehensive definition that encompasses both inter and intra group racism)

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Evidence of Racism

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Objective evidence of intergroup racism in higher education, restaurant industry, housing rentals and sales, hiring practices, etc., as well as more subjective evidence reported by African Americans. There are fewer studies on intragroup racism, although there is objective evidence that African Americans have discriminated against those with darker skin.

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Biopsychosocial Contextual Model: Important for three reasons

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1. If exposure to racism is perceived as stressful, it may have negative biopsychosocial consequences that might explain intergroup differences in health outcomes. 2. Differential exposure to and coping responses following perceptions of racism may account for the wide within group variability in health outcomes among African Americans. 3. If exposure to racism relates to negative health outcomes, specific strategies and interventions could be developed to address the issue.

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Biopsychosocial Contextual Model: Proposed model:

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Perceptions of an environmental stimulus as racist results in exaggerated psychological and physiological stress responses that are influenced by constitutional factors (e.g. skin tone, risk of hypertension), socio demographic factors (e.g. SES, gender, age), psychological and behavioral factors (e.g. ways of coping with anger), and coping responses. Over time, these stress responses influence health outcome.

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Biopsychosocial Contextual Model: Moderators

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Constitutional factors, socio-demographic factors and psychological and behavior factors are seen as moderators in this mode.

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Biopsychosocial Contextual Model: Mediators

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Racism as a perceived stressor and coping responses are seen as mediators. Coping responses can be general or specific to coping with racism. Effective general coping responses include anger expression (lowers blood pressure), utilizing social support, and participating in religion. Racism specific coping responses have been studied much less. Appears that passive coping in response to racism leads to higher rates of hypertension

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Stress responses (such as anger, anxiety, helplessness, frustration fear) involve

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immune, neuroendocrine and cardiovascular functioning.

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Health outcomes

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Psychological and physiological responses to perceptions of racism may lead to mental and physical health problems, such as depression and high blood pressure.

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Racism, Sexism and Social Class: Implications for Studies of Health, Disease and Well Being

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by Krieger et al., 1993

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Summarized differences in public health problems along

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people of different races, classes, gender.

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Recommendations for future research (4)

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1. More basic descriptive data about the incidence of and prevalence of illness, stratified by race, gender and social class combined. Need better measures of social class. 2. Research should improve ways in which both individual and neighborhood level socioeconomic measures are incorporated into epidemiologic analysis. 3. Researchers need to develop and validate new methods to elicit the objective and subjective components of discrimination, oppression and internalized oppression. 4. New research needs to focus on protective factors.

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**A Threat in the Air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance by Claude Steel, 1997**

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Good article to reference for IQ testing /psychodiagnostics. Also an important consideration for development of interventions: do the interventions support the stereotypes or help dismantle them?

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In order to sustain school success one must

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be identified with school achievement as part of one’s self definition. This leads to sustained achievement motivation. In order for such as identification to form, one must perceive that one has the skills, resources and opportunities to prosper in that domain, as well as that one belongs there.

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Stereotype threat

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a situational threat that arises when one is in a situation or doing something for which a negative stereotype about one’s group applies. Members of these groups fear being reduced to that stereotype.

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This threat can lead to

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poor performance. Over time, it leads to disidentification with the domain.

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There are huge differences in terms of

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how well blacks and whites do in school, and how well women and men do in math and science.

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These differences are not explained by

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differences in SES or by group differences in skills (e.g. performance differences hold up for students with the same SAT score.)

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Threats to academic identification

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structural and cultural threats, stereotype threat

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Structural and cultural threats

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1.Material limitations associated with low SES (poor schools, lack of resources) 2. Cultural patterns within groups that make it difficult to identify with school (Ogbu talks about a lower class black culture that is oppositional to school)

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Stereotype Threat

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A negative stereotype about a group to which one belongs becoming self relevant, usually as a plausible interpretation for something one is doing or for an experience on is having.

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This is not something that happens only to particular stigmatized groups

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it affects any group where there is some known negative stereotype (such as an elderly person who fears anything they do will confirm that they are losing their memory)

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To experience stereotype threat, one need not

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believe the stereotype or even be worried that it is true of oneself.

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Empirical support for stereotype threat: Women in math

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Recruited male and female students who were good at math and saw themselves as strong math students and that math was impt to their self definition. Gave them a very difficult math test one at a time. Participants were told either that the test generally showed gender differences, or that it did not. Women performed worse when told that the test produced gender differences, but equal to men when the test was presented as insensitive to gender differences. Another experiment showed that this performance difference was mediated by anxiety.

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Empirical support for stereotype threat: Blacks vs. whites

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Black participants greatly underperformed White participants when told that a test was ability diagnostic, but their performance was equal when told a test was not ability diagnostic. In a second experiment, Blacks were told the test was non ability diagnostic, but half were asked to write their race on a demographic questionnaire before the test. Same results replicated. Further studies demonstrated that blacks in ability-diagnostic situations completed more word fragments with negative stereotypes about blacks (e.g. completed l a * * as lazy) and with words associated with self doubt (e.g. completed d u * * as dumb), and endorsed fewer stereotypically black preferences (e.g. listening to jazz music) than those in the non diagnostic situations. They were clearly primed to think about stereotypes and then were trying to avoid associating themselves with those stereotypes.

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Cast like minorities in many countries have

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a 15 point lower IQ than others, even when they are of the same “race” as the majority group.

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One process by which Blacks maintain their self esteem is by

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disidentification with the school domain. This has been recreated in a study with women. When they were told that differences between men and women in math were due to innate differences, they disidentified with math as a domain and with math related careers, but when told that differences were due to social causes, they did not.

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Implications: Different interventions needed for

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those students who are identified with the school domain and therefore face stereotype threat and for those students who are deidentified with the domain.

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For both domain identified and domain unidentified students

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1. Optimistic teacher student relationships 2. Challenge over remediation 3. Stressing expandability of intelligence

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For domain identified students

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1. Affirming domain belongingness 2. Valuing multiple perspectives 3. Role models

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For domain unidentified students

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1. Nonjudgemental responsiveness: little direct praise, Socratic direction, and minimal attention to right and wrong answers. 2. Building self efficacy

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Example of differential impacts of different interventions

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Steele and colleagues implemented a program at U of M, where they selected a group of college freshman of all races/ethnicities, although they oversampled minorities. They said that they selected them due to their strong potential. They gave them challenging extra classes and support through the transition. There was a remedial program at the U of M where minority students were also given support and attention. However, this was only for minority students and was seen as a remediation program. Students in Steele’s program did much better than average for Black students, while students in remediation program did much worse than Black average. Steele’s program worked against stereotype threat, while the remediation program reinforced it.

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***The Study of Culture, Ethnicity and Race in American Psychology by Betancourt & López (1993)**

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Richard said this was an important article for comps

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This article examines the way culture and related concepts are studied in American psychology

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Currently there is conceptual confusion and problems with the way culture, ethnicity and race are used as explanatory factors for intergroup differences. Authors suggest ways to study culture and to enhance hypothesis testing related to culture. Importance of examining sociocultural variables and considering theory in minority research is discussed.

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Study of culture in American psychology is usually either

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1. Replication of findings in some remote part of the world or 2. Study of ethnic minorities, segregated from mainstream psychology

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Main concern:

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Cross cultural researchers who study cultural differences frequently fail to identify the specific aspects of culture and related variables that are thought to influence behavior. Impedes our understanding of groups and group specific processes. Limits understanding of more universal processes that cut across cultural, ethnic and racial groups.

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Propose that both mainstream and cross cultural investigators

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identify and measure directly what about the group variable of interest to their research influences behavior.

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Culture

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Highly variable systems of meanings which are learned and shared by a people or an identifiable segment of a population. It represents designs and ways of life that are normally transmitted from one generation to another.

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Subjective culture includes elements such as

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social norms, roles, beliefs and values. These include a wide range of topics, such as familial roles, communication patterns, affective styles, and values regarding personal control, individualism, collectivism, spirituality and religiosity. These are all things can be measured by psychologists.

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Race is Generally defined in terms of

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physical characteristics

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Criticized as

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Arbitrary. There are more within group differences than between group differences. Genetic differences between individuals of the same tribe or nation account for more variance than do racial groupings

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The study of racial differences in psychological phenomena is

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of little scientific use without a clear understanding of the variables responsible for the differences observed between the groups classified as races. Even in situations where biological differences are important (e.g. the fact that African Americans are at higher risk of hypertension than Anglo-Americans), what is of scientific interest is not the race but the relationship between the identified biological factors (e.g. plasma rennin levels and sodium excretion) and hypertension. Additionally, even if a cause/effect relationship is established, one cannot attribute this relationship to race because of intraracial variability and interracial overlap with regard to the biological variables. Psychological stress or factors such as diet, life style and culture could be responsible for the differences in biological factors. Additionally, these differences between races may not be found in other parts of the world.

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Ethnicity is often used interchangeably with

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culture and race

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Ethnicity is usually used in reference to groups that are categorized in terms of

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a common nationality, culture of language.

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As members of an ethnic group interact, ethnicity becomes

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a means by which culture is transmitted.

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Variations between ethnic groups can be useful as long as

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the specific variable of theoretical interest is measured and related to the relevant psychological phenomena.

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In addition to the specific cultural elements, there are a range of ethnic related variables, such as

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ethnic identification, perceived discrimination, and bilingualism.

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Social and Related Variables

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Effect of variables such as the social system and SES can also be confounded with the influence of culture, race and ethnicity. When you control for SES-related variables, often racial differences disappear. However, because culture is related to SES, it is still possible that there are cultural differences that you cannot see because you controlled for SES. Additionally, there may be cultural beliefs or attributes of the lower classes, that are wrongly attributed to income.

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Two good approaches to cultural research

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1. Begin with a phenomenon observed in the study of culture and apply it cross culturally to test theories of human behavior (bottom up approach: start with observation and move to theory). 2. Begin with a theory, typically one that ignores culture, and incorporates cultural elements to broaden its theoretical domain. (top down approach: start with theory and move to observations within and between cultures.)

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Bell hooks, Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory

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(Chapter 1, 2000)

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Feminism in the U.S has not emerged from

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the women who are most victimized by sexist oppression. They are a silent majority.

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White women who dominate feminist discourse and articulate feminist theory have

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little or no understanding of white supremacy or social class, and of their political status within a racist, sexist, classist society.

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Privileged women wanted

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social equality with men of their class.

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The idea of individualism has

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permeated feminist thought to such an extent that it undermines the potential for radical feminist struggle.

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Feminism started as a liberation movement, but has become

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an ideology that is threatened by new theories of liberation.

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“White women and black men have it both ways.

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They can act as oppressor or be oppressed. Black men may be victimized by racism, but sexism allows them to act as exploiters and oppressors of women. White women may be victimized by sexism, but racism enables them to act as exploiters and oppressors of black people. Both groups have led liberation movements that favor their interests and support the continued oppression of other groups. . . A long as any group defines liberation as gaining social equality with ruling class white men, they have a vested interest in the continued exploitation and oppression of others.”

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Black women have a special vantage point due to

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their marginalized status, and a perspective that allows them to criticize the dominant racist, classist, sexist hegemony.

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Hooks, bell, The Significance of Feminist Movement

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(Chapter 3, 2000)

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Underlying much of the white women’s liberation movement was the implication that

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men had nothing to gain by the feminist’s movement, and that its success would make them losers

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They argued that all men are

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the enemies of all women and proposed solutions such as utopian women’s nations, separatist communities, and even the subjugation or extermination of all men.

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Sexist discrimination, exploitation and oppression have created

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the war between the sexes.

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Feminist movement can

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end the war between the sexes. It can transform relationships so that the alienation, competition and dehumanization that characterize human interaction can be replaced with feelings of intimacy, mutuality and camaraderie.

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Within our society, all oppression is supported by

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traditional Western thinking that the superior should control the inferior.

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All forms of oppression are linked because

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they are supported by similar institutional and social structures.

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Most people experience sexism in

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the home, whereas they experience racism and classism in the outside world.

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Feminists traditionally implied that the successful feminist movement would either begin with or lead to

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the abolition of family. This suggestion was terribly threatening to many women, especially non white women, and it kept them from joining the feminist movement.

Front 149

While many white women find the home to be oppressive, for many black women

Back 149

it is the least oppressive institution.

Front 150

It is possible to rid families of

Back 150

abusive aspects without devaluing it.

Front 151

An important stage in the development of political consciousness is reached when

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individuals recognize the need to struggle against ALL forms of oppression. The fight against sexist oppression is of grave political significance: it is not for women only.

Front 152

Bell Hooks Chapter 4 (not on new syllabus but I think this quote is important)

Back 152

“Women do not need to eradicate difference to feel solidarity. We do not need to share common oppression to fight equally to end oppression. We do not need anti male sentiments to bond us together so great is the wealth of experience, culture and ideas we have to share with one another. We can be sisters united by shared interests and beliefs, united in our appreciation for diversity, united in our struggle to end sexist oppression, united in political solidarity.”

Front 153

Bell hooks, Men: Comrades in Struggle,

Back 153

Chapter 5 (2000)

Front 154

Women’s liberationists called upon

Back 154

all women to join feminist movement, but they did not invite men to join the struggle against sexist oppression.

Front 155

Their ideology of women as oppressed and men as oppressors reinforced the idea that

Back 155

there is a basic conflict between the sexes, and that women’s liberation would come at the expense of men.

Front 156

They did not call attention to the fact that men do not share

Back 156

a common social status, and that white women are often less victimized than non white men.

Front 157

Anti male sentiment alienated

Back 157

many poor and working class women, particularly non white women, from the movement. Their life experiences have shown them that they have more in common with men of their race or class group than with bourgeois white women. They know the hardships and suffering that men in their communities face, and they have compassion for them.

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The role of black women in their communities is

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recognized by everyone as significant and valuable, which differs from the way white women have been perceived in their communities. Black women have never been kept to the kitchen, nursery, bedrooms. They have worked and led communities and churches.

Front 159

Like women, men have been

Back 159

socialized to passively accept sexist ideology. They must take responsibility for eliminating it.

Front 160

Men are not exploited by sexism, but they do

Back 160

suffer as a result of it. Many experience emotional pain as a result of their role, or have been criticized by women they care about for being sexist.

Front 161

Poor or working class men who have been socialized via sexist ideology to believe that

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there are privileges and powers he should possess bc he is male often finds that few if any of these benefits are actually bestowed upon him. He is constantly concerned about the contradiction between the notion of masculinity he was taught and his inability to live up to that notion. Alienated and angry, he may attack, abuse and oppress individual women. However, he is exercising the only power and domination he possesses. As long as he attacks women and not sexism or capitalism, he helps to maintain a system that offers him few benefits or privileges and that makes him into an oppressor, an enemy to women, and an enemy to himself.

Front 162

Often feminists talk about male abuse of women as if it is

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an exercise of privilege rather than an expression of moral bankruptcy, insanity and dehumanization. Oppression of women is not privilege! As long as people are socialized to believe it is, men will have no motivation to change.

Front 163

So far, feminist rhetoric identifying men as the enemy has had

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few positive implications. Had feminist activists called attention to the relationship between ruling class men and all other men, these men might have been motivated to examine the impact of sexism in their lives.

Front 164

Men who have decided to be honest about sexism and sexist oppression often find themselves

Back 164

isolated.

Front 165

Bell hooks, Educating Women: The Feminist Agenda

Back 165

(Chapter 8, 2000)

Front 166

Many participants in contemporary feminist movement are

Back 166

college educated. They have not stressed the need to make education a feminist agenda

Front 167

The political importance of literacy is still

Back 167

understressed in the feminist movement today, even though printed material has become the sole medium for expression of the theory.

Front 168

Many theorists do not expect

Back 168

their theories to reach the masses of women. The version of feminism that most women know about is the perverted notion they learn from TV.

Front 169

Until all women read and write, feminist ideas must be

Back 169

spread by word of mouth.

Front 170

Feminist educations need to learn the skill of

Back 170

translating ideas to an audience that varies in age, ethnicity, and degree of literacy/education.

Front 171

There has been a tug of war between

Back 171

feminist intellectuals and academics vs. participants in the movement who equate education with bourgeois privilege and are anti intellectual.

Front 172

A lot of theory has been developed that does not

Back 172

apply to most women, which has led many women to reject theory.

Front 173

Bell hooks, Feminist Revolution: Development Through Struggle

Back 173

(Chapter 12, 2000)

Front 174

Feminist successes have primarily been in the area of

Back 174

reform, rather than establishing a new society.

Front 175

Feminist consciousness raising has not significantly pushed women in the direction of

Back 175

revolutionary politics. It has not helped women understand capitalism or socialism or encouraged women to invent new political systems. It has not helped women be aware of exploitation and oppression in the world.

Front 176

Women must reorganize and build

Back 176

a mass based feminist movement with a liberatory ideology that can be shared with everyone.

Front 177

Smedley & Smedley. (2005).

Back 177

Race as Biology is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race.

Front 178

Race is a recent construct, and the purpose of this article is

Back 178

to ‘bring anthropological and historical perspectives to the study of race.’

Front 179

Ethnicity and culture:

Back 179

Anthropologists conceptualize culture as external and acquired, not biologically hard wired. Likewise, ethnicity is not fixed, ethnic groups are not ‘bounded entities,’ but open and subject to change.

Front 180

Historical perspectives:

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Historically, race had no significant social meaning. Race became significant during the rise of slavery, when politicians and religious leaders tried to justify the enslavement of Africans by drawing racial boundaries and comparisons. The genetic concept of race began in the 20th century. Currently, race can be seen as an ideology or worldview and influences or is influenced by social policy.

Front 181

Role of science:

Back 181

Science plays into the racial comparisons by testing and confirming beliefs about human differences. (In the 20th century, this was achieved through the use of intelligence tests.)

Front 182

**Ultimately, race is

Back 182

a culturally invented idea about human differences. It has become an important mechanism for limiting and restricting access to power and resources.

Front 183

Racialized science & public policy: Social race is a significant predictor of

Back 183

which groups have greater or lesser access to goods and resources.

Front 184

Although some believe discrimination has been eliminated in the US, others argue that it’s taken subtler forms such as

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institutional discrimination: uneven access to resources and power based on group membership. ID exists in home mortgage lending, housing discrimination, employment and housing practices, and healthcare (among others).

Front 185

Racialized science can only

Back 185

maintain and reinforce existing racial inequality.

Front 186

Sue. (1999).

Back 186

Science, Ethnicity, & Bias: Where Have We Gone Wrong?

Front 187

Main questions addressed by article:

Back 187

Is science biased against ethnic minority research? Why is there a lack of ethnic minority research and high quality ethnic research?

Front 188

Sue’s (1999) positions:

Back 188

1. There is a lack of psychological research on ethnic minority populations 2. Research on ethnic minority groups is uneven, with much of it at a low level 3. Funding for ethnic minority research has been inadequate

Front 189

Science requires both internal and external validity but has

Back 189

overemphasized internal validity. This means that research is less generalizable to the populations and settings of interest. (Sue calls this selective enforcement of scientific principles)

Front 190

The selective enforcement of scientific principles discourages ethnic minority research because

Back 190

1) it is more difficult to conduct ethnic minority research with high internal validity and 2) a lot of research that has already been done cannot used as a foundation for conducting ethnic minority research (e.g., “established” measures such as the MMPI cannot be used because their reliability for some populations has not been studied, thus a lot of time is spent creating new measures, etc.)

Front 191

Solutions:

Back 191

1. Demands should be made for greater external validity while strong internal validity standards are maintained in all research studies. 2. A wide range of research methodologies should be used, particularly in ethnic minority research, to create a more substantial knowledge base. 3. Ethnic and cross cultural researchers should try to go beyond comparisons in different populations. Researchers should explain what aspects of ethnicity are responsible for the differences.

Front 192

Week 4:

Back 192

Gender Politics

Front 193

Rich. (1980).

Back 193

Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence.

Front 194

Two concerns of paper:

Back 194

1. Why women’s choice of women as life partners, lovers, coworkers, etc. has been invalidated 2. The virtual or total neglect of lesbian existence in a wide range of writings, including feminist scholarship

Front 195

Female heterosexuality has been understood as

Back 195

a ‘preference’ that does not need explanation, whereas lesbian sexuality is assumed to be different and remarkable.

Front 196

Rich (1980) suggests that heterosexuality needs to be studied as

Back 196

a political institution.

Front 197

Rich (1980) questions why

Back 197

species survival, means of impregnation, and emotional/erotic relationships have become rigidly associated with one another.

Front 198

Women have been convinced through a variety of forces that

Back 198

marriage and sexual orientation toward men are inevitable (even if unsatisfying and oppressive).

Front 199

The enforcement of heterosexuality for women is a means of

Back 199

assuring the male right of physical, economical, and emotional access. One method of enforcement is the invisibility of the lesbian possibility.

Front 200

The denial and invisibility of the lesbian continuum has led to

Back 200

a loss of the power of women to change the social relations of the sexes.

Front 201

Shibley Hyde. (2005).

Back 201

The Gender Similarities Hypothesis.

Front 202

Shibley Hyde (2005) refutes the difference hypothesis (males and females are, psychologically, vastly different) and puts forth

Back 202

the gender similarities hypothesis (males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables) with a meta analysis.

Front 203

Findings indicate that 78% of gender differences are

Back 203

small (effect size <.35) or close to zero, supporting the gender similarities hypothesis.

Front 204

Moderate to large differences are seen in some areas:

Back 204

1. Motor behaviors (e.g., throwing velocity) 2. Aspects of sexuality (e.g., masturbation and attitudes toward casual sex) 3. Aggression (mainly physical aggression)

Front 205

Differences are often dependent on

Back 205

context, particularly when gender is made more or less salient or gender differences are emphasized in an experimental context.

Front 206

Overinflated claims of gender differences are costly in several areas:

Back 206

1. Women are often expected to be more nurturing, and those who aren’t are often given worse performance evaluations at work. 2. Teachers and parents are less likely to recognize or expect math talent in females. 3. Fewer efforts/interventions are geared toward increasing young boys’ self esteem.

Front 207

Week 5:

Back 207

White Identity and White Privilege

Front 208

Hardiman. (2001).

Back 208

Reflections on White Identity Development Theory.

Front 209

Hardiman Model of White Identity Development (WID): How Whites come to terms with their Whiteness with respect to racism and race privilege. Stages include:

Back 209

1. No Social Consciousness of Race or Naivete 2. Acceptance 3. Resistance 4. Redefinition 5. Internalization

Front 210

Analysis of WID:

Back 210

The model ignores or underemphasizes the question of how Whites identify culturally with their Whiteness. It is a gross oversimplification of the experience of all Whites in the US (more of a prescription for how things should be than a description of what actually is)

Front 211

Helms Model of White Racial Identity Development (WRID): Stagewise process of developing racial consciousness. Stages include:

Back 211

1. Contact 2. Disintegration 3. Reintegration 4. Pseudoindependence 5. Immersion/Emersion 6. Autonomy

Front 212

Analysis of WRID:

Back 212

Based on models of Black identity. Does not focus on White identity but on how Whites develop appreciation for other racial/ethnic groups

Front 213

Future of Research on White Identity Development:

Back 213

1. Strive to understand why some Whites reject privilege while others claim to be victims of affirmative action/champions of race based privilege. 2. Investigate which groups Whites belong to at a cultural level. 3. Hardiman (2001) believes there is more to Whiteness than racism and Wonder Bread.

Front 214

Additional areas for future research:

Back 214

1. Examine how Whites feel, think, and reflect upon their Whiteness and racial group, relate to other races 2. Study how Whites experience their ethnicity within the racial construct of Whiteness 3. Investigate Whites who have created a new sense of cultural identification that replaces their lost ethnicity 4. Study the ways in which Whites have responded to the “identity movements” of other groups that are not defensive, reactionary, or oppressive

Front 215

McDermott & Samson. (2005).

Back 215

White Racial and Ethnic Identity in the United States.

Front 216

Recent demographic trends have highlighted the existence of whites as a racial category rather than

Back 216

a default identity, but the majority of studies imply that whites have no racial identity but are a base group against which others should be compared.

Front 217

More recently, there has been a realization that we can’t fully understand racism and racial inequality without understanding

Back 217

the formation and development of white racial identity.

Front 218

Focus of this article:

Back 218

white racial and ethnic identity in the U.S.

Front 219

White vs. Caucasian vs. Anglo:

Back 219

Majority prefers label ‘white,’ but preferred label varies by level of education and geographic location.

Front 220

Whiteness studies have emphasized several important areas of white racial identity:

Back 220

1. It is often invisible or taken for granted 2. It is rooted in social and economic privilege 3. Its meaning and import are highly situational

Front 221

One common theme among different lines of research on whiteness:

Back 221

context in which whites live influences their perceptions and experiences of being white. Whiteness is not a static, unchangeable, easily definable identity

Front 222

Research on white racial identity should move away from describing white as an overlooked, privileged identity and carry out empirical studies of

Back 222

white identity in the areas of 1) social movement, 2) ethnic identity, and 3) social psychology.

Front 223

Week 5:

Back 223

Context & Identity Development

Front 224

Bohan. (1996).

Back 224

The (Uncertain) Meaning of Sexual Orientation.

Front 225

Goal of article:

Back 225

explore the uncertain meaning of sexual orientation in an effort to challenge a simplistic understanding of the topic

Front 226

Our understanding of sexual orientation is rooted in

Back 226

our own context and is a culturally and historically specific concept

Front 227

Across cultures, sexual orientation is viewed

Back 227

in different ways. For example, in Melanesian cultures, homosexual activity between young males and adult men is a rite of passage and is not equated with a homosexual ‘identity.’ There are many other instances in across cultures of homosexual activity reflecting a norm in society. **”The significance given to particular behaviors and experiences is a product of context.”** Historical context is also important, as views on homosexual activity have changed over time to its current conception as an important aspect of an individual’s identity.

Front 228

The LGB community across time has had influence on

Back 228

changing understandings of LGB experience and vice versa. The community has changed according to societal influence and attitudes, in turn affecting individual’s experiences.

Front 229

Currently, sexuality is often viewed in terms of two categories:

Back 229

homosexual vs. heterosexual (some add bisexual as a third category). It is more likely that sexuality exists on a continuum and can even change over time (according, of course, to context, culture, history, etc.)

Front 230

Ferdman & Gallegos. (2001).

Back 230

Racial Identity Development and Latinos in the United States.

Front 231

Latinos don’t fit easily into

Back 231

prevailing system of racial categories in US. This makes Latino racial identity a challenging topic.

Front 232

Individual identity is developed in the context of

Back 232

group and intergroup realities.

Front 233

Overarching Latino identity maybe defined by

Back 233

cultural, historical, sociological, political, language, religious commonalities. The Latino group is, overall, “panethnic” and heterogeneous.

Front 234

Important to consider an individual’s

Back 234

national origin rather than just calling them Latino.

Front 235

National origin subgroups differ in

Back 235

important ways and may impact racial identity.

Front 236

The racial constructs in the US (“either/or” categorizations) don’t fit well with

Back 236

the heterogeneous nature of Latinos. How Latinos define themselves racially often depends on geographic location.

Front 237

Some Latinos are “racial chameleons,”

Back 237

switching racial identities depending on time and place.

Front 238

Life experiences have a strong impact on the way individuals identify themselves ethnically and racially. Influential factors include:

Back 238

1. Familial and cultural context 2. Messages received about the Latino group 3. Early experiences with other ethnic and racial groups

Front 239

** “Identity development needs to be seen as

Back 239

an ongoing, dynamic process rather than a static even, fluid rather than immutable once established.”

Front 240

Sellers et al. (1998).

Back 240

Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: A Reconceptualization of African American Racial Identity.

Front 241

The Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity is a conceptual framework for understanding

Back 241

the significance and meaning of race for African Americans. The MMRI also explains how racial identity influences individuals’ situational appraisals and behavior. Answers 2 questions: 1. How important is race in the individual’s perception of self? 2. What does it mean to be a member of this racial group?

Front 242

Two approaches to studying African American racial identity: (the MMRI employs both approaches)

Back 242

1. Mainstream approach: Focuses on the significance of race/ethnicity but does not focus on the unique aspects of African American racial identity. 2. Underground approach: emphasizes the specificity of African American racial identity

Front 243

The MMRI has 4 assumptions:

Back 243

1. Identities are situationally influenced as well as being stable properties of a person 2. Individuals have a number of different identities, and they are hierarchically ordered. 3. Individuals’ perceptions of their racial identity is the most valid indicator of their identity 4. Primary concern is status of identity as opposed to its development.

Front 244

MMRI proposes 4 dimensions of racial identity:

Back 244

1. Racial salience: refers to significance individuals attach to race, the extent to which one’s race is a relevant part of one’s self-concept at a particular moment or in a particular situation 2. Racial centrality: refers to significance individuals attach to race, the extent to which a person defines him/herself with regard to race (more stable over time) 3. Racial regard: involves perceptions of what it means to be Black, the extent to which one feels positive about his/her race 4. Racial ideology: involves perceptions of what it means to be Black, a person’s philosophy about the ways in which African Americans should live and interact with society

Front 245

4 ideologies:

Back 245

1. Nationalist philosophy 2. Oppressed minority philosophy 3. Assimilation philosophy 4. Humanist philosophy

Front 246

Each aspect of the MMRI contributes to how

Back 246

an individual appraises situations (and, ultimately, their behavior in that situation).

Front 247

The MMRI may be applied to individuals in other racial/ethnic or gender groups, but before it is applied, there should be

Back 247

an assessment of the model’s compatibility with the experience of that group.

Front 248

Week 6:

Back 248

Identity Legitimization & Psychology

Front 249

Weinberg. (2006).

Back 249

Sadomasochism and the Social Sciences: A Review of the Sociological and Social Psychological Literature.

Front 250

Major conclusion of article:

Back 250

Research indicates SM is a complex social phenomenon, not well-described by the pathological, psychoanalytical view of SM. Many studies have found SM practitioners to be emotionally and psychologically well balanced, comfortable with sexual orientation, and socially well adjusted.

Front 251

Essentially, despite the fact that SM is a part of the DSM and thus reflective of psychopathology, it’s actually just

Back 251

a sexual/lifestyle preference that doesn’t have to be an indication of an underlying issue.

Front 252

Interesting point: Some believe that the inclusion of “unusual sexual interests” in the DSM is

Back 252

an act to oppress sexual minorities and serve a political agenda.

Front 253

Kleinplatz. (2006).

Back 253

Learning from Extraordinary Lovers: Lessons from the Edge.

Front 254

This paper focuses on the lessons one can learn from SM practitioners re:

Back 254

the sexual experience/human erotic potential.

Front 255

Kleinplatz delineates 10 lessons. Some examples:

Back 255

1. The power of intense eroticism lies within. The power of intense eroticism is not found in expert “physical” skills but in penetrating the person within. 2. Aim for better, more finely tuned, intricate, specific phenomenology. As a field, we spend too much time focused on labels and not enough on the exploration of the distinctive individual. 3. Sex has many purposes. “Sex” is about “nonsexual” purposes also. It is dangerous for experts to dictate what sex should be, reasons for having sex, etc. 4. Learn from those who refuse to settle for merely pleasureful and satisfying sex. There is little knowledge of what constitutes normal sexuality, let along the nature of optimal sexuality or how to attain it.

Front 256

Lev. (2005).

Back 256

Disordering Gender Identity: Gender Identity Disorder in the DSM-IV-TR.

Front 257

Main point of article:

Back 257

Social biases often drive the creation and maintenance of diagnostic categories. Racism, sexism, and homophobia impact clinical assessment and public policy.

Front 258

Clinical diagnoses are used to

Back 258

(mis)label the pain experienced by minorities (racial/ethnic, gender, sexual minorities), and attempts to stand up to oppressive situations are seen as proof of their mental disorders.

Front 259

It’s often hard to tell whether the “deviance,” “conflict,” or “disorder” that women, people of color, and sexual minorities have experienced are

Back 259

symptoms of individual dysfunction or an adaptation to oppressive social and clinical realities. For example: In the case of Gender Identity Disorder, distress and impairment are the defining terms used to classify GID as a disorder, but it’s hard to tell what’s internal distress and what is being externally imposed.

Front 260

Week 6:

Back 260

Liberation Psychology & the Worldview

Front 261

Sue & Sue. (2003).

Back 261

Dimensions of Worldviews. *This article seems highly applicable to a range of topics and could be used for a number of classes*

Front 262

Our worldview affects how we

Back 262

perceive and evaluate situations and how we derive appropriate actions based on our appraisal.

Front 263

Many individuals from minority backgrounds hold

Back 263

different worldviews than individuals from the dominant culture.

Front 264

Definition of worldview (according to Sue & Sue):

Back 264

Worldviews are composed of our attitudes, values, opinions, and concepts and also affect how we thin, define events, make decisions, and behave.

Front 265

Sue & Sue describe the Value Orientation Model of worldviews put forth by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961).

Back 265

Cultures vary in their emphasis on time, human activity, social relations, and people/nature relationship. The model is best summarized with a table, which is now put into flashcards

Front 266

Dimension: Time Focus: What is the temporary focus of human life? Value orientations

Back 266

1. Past: The past is important. Learn from history. 2. Present: The present moment is everything. Don’t worry about tomorrow. 3. Future: Plan for the future. Sacrifice today for a better tomorrow.

Front 267

Dimension: Human Activity: What is the modality of human activity? Value orientations

Back 267

1. Being: It’s enough just to be. 2: Being & In-becoming: Our purpose in life is to develop our inner self. 3. Doing: Be active. Work hard and your efforts will be rewarded.

Front 268

Dimension: Social Relations: How are human relationships defined? Value orientations

Back 268

1. Lineal: Relationships are vertical. There are leaders and followers in this world. 2. Collateral: We should consult with friends/families when problems arise. 3. Individualistic: Individual autonomy is important. We control our own destiny.

Front 269

Dimension: People/Nature Relationships: What is the relationship of people to nature? Value orientations

Back 269

1. Subjugation to nature: Life is largely determined by external forces (God, fate, genetics, etc). 2. Harmony with nature: People and nature coexist in harmony. 3. Mastery over nature: Our challenge is to conquer and control nature

Front 270

The rest of the article focuses on two factors important in understanding people with different psychological orientations:

Back 270

1. Locus of control, 2. Locus of responsibility

Front 271

Locus of control:

Back 271

1. Internal control (IC): people’s beliefs that reinforcements are contingent on their own actions and that they shape their own fate 2. External control (EC): people’s beliefs that reinforcing events occur independently of their actions and that the future is determined more by chance and luck/other external forces

Front 272

Locus of responsibility: the degree of responsibility or blame placed on the individual or system

Back 272

1. Person centered: belief that success or failure is attributable to the individual’s skills or personal inadequacies, there is a strong relationship b/t ability, effort, and success in society, 2. System blame: belief that the sociocultural environment is more potent than the individual

Front 273

The two orientations interact to form one’s worldview. Thus, there are 4 worldviews based on these factors:

Back 273

1. IC/IR, 2. EC/IR, 3. IC/ER, 4. EC/ER

Front 274

Internal Locus of Control (IC)/Internal Locus of Responsibility (IR)

Back 274

Most common worldview of white, middle class individuals. High value placed on personal resources for solving problems. Values include self reliance, pragmatism, individualism. Therapeutic implications: Western approaches to clinical practice often fall under this worldview. Thus, there is usually a match between therapist and individuals holding this worldview.

Front 275

External Locus of Control (EC)/Internal Locus of Responsibility (IR)

Back 275

Accept the dominant culture’s definition for self responsibility but have very little real control over how they’re defined by others (i.e., marginalized individuals who deny the existence of racism, systemic oppression). May result in self hatred, rejection of cultural heritage. Therapeutic implications: A culturally sensitive therapist should focus on helping the client 1) understand the dominant/ subordinate political forces that have created their dilemma and 2) distinguish between positive attempts to acculturate and a negative rejection of their cultural values.

Front 276

External Locus of Control (EC)/External Locus of Responsibility (ER)

Back 276

A person with this worldview feels that there isn’t very much he/she can do to overcome serious systemic obstacles and discrimination. This worldview may result in learned helplessness. Therapeutic implications: A culturally sensitive therapist should 1) teach the clients new coping strategies, 2) have them experience successes, and 3) validate who they are and what they represent.

Front 277

Internal Locus of Control (IC)/External Locus of Responsibility (ER)

Back 277

A person with this worldview believes they’re able to shape events in their own life if given a chance (they are realistic about external barriers such as discrimination). According to evidence, more and more minorities are likely to hold an IC/ER worldview. Therapeutic implications: IC/IR therapists and IC-ER clients may conflict on a number of levels. It is important for an IC/IR therapist to understand this worldview and how it would affect their clients.

Front 278

Montero. (1990).

Back 278

Ideology and Psychosocial Research in Third World Contexts.

Front 279

Ideology:

Back 279

a system of social meanings and representations that are the outcome of a distorting, shadowing, and masking process produced because of unequally powerful groups.

Front 280

Examples of ideology in action:

Back 280

1. People aren’t outraged about torture because of their authoritarian ideology, which presents torture as a necessary evil and dehumanizes victims. 2. People in Venezuela have adopted a negative self image because of colonial ideology (i.e., maintaining and exaggerating benefits of dependent relationships, preventing national development).

Front 281

Ideology operates at the societal, interpersonal, and individual level. Psychologists should focus on

Back 281

how processes at the societal level become a part of the individual.

Front 282

Bottom line:

Back 282

ideology mediates people’s understanding of the world and allows people to support or tolerate issues by hiding and distorting actual causes of events and social conditions. Ideology permits a sociohistorical framing of what is usually dismissed as “confused” or “contradictory” behaviors

Front 283

Week 7:

Back 283

Liberation Psychology & Worldview

Front 284

Sloan. (1990).

Back 284

Psychology for the Third World?

Front 285

Traditional psychology has generally ignored

Back 285

the “other half” of the world (people from the Third World). Our lack of concern for and action in the Third World is the product of ideological processes and emphasis on positivist methods and individualism

Front 286

There is growing concern for the Third World in psychology. Due to a few factors:

Back 286

1. General movement toward global awareness 2. Paradigm shift in cross cultural psychology 3. Multidisciplinary attitude growing in science

Front 287

Bottom line:

Back 287

Western trained psychologists must move toward involvement in the Third World by purging themselves of individualistic and “scientistic” thinking: move from “pure” research to applied research associated with prevention, public health education, world systems analysis, etc.

Front 288

Martin Baro. (1994).

Back 288

The Role of the Psychologist.

Front 289

Psychology currently tries to change

Back 289

the individual while preserving the social order. Psychology thus serves the interests of the established social order.

Front 290

The future of psychology should be in concientizacion. Concientizacion is

Back 290

essentially the process of an individual achieving a critical understanding of themselves, their world, and where they stand in it.

Front 291

There are 3 aspects of concientizacion:

Back 291

1. The human being is transformed through changing his/her reality. 2. Through the gradual decoding of their world, people grasp the mechanisms of oppression and dehumanization. 3. People’s knowledge of their surrounding reality carries them to an understanding of themselves and their social identity, allowing them to be more autonomous.

Front 292

With respect to concientizacion, the role of the psychologist should be to

Back 292

help individuals attain a critical understanding of themselves and their reality.

Front 293

The goal of this is to achieve

Back 293

a good fit between each individual and society.

Front 294

The most radical choice Central American psychologist face today concerns

Back 294

the tension between living within the system that has benefited them and initiating a critical confrontation with that system.

Front 295

Week 7:

Back 295

Acculturation and the Psychology of Immigration

Front 296

Gonsalves (1992).

Back 296

Psychological stages of the Refugee Process: A model for therapeutic interventions.

Front 297

Refugee resettlement stages and

Back 297

psychotherapeutic implications

Front 298

Stage 1: Early Arrival

Back 298

When refugees arrive to a host country many are confused and disorganized and continue to live in the host country as if they were in their homeland. Therapeutic implications: interventions in this stage rely heavily on primary prevention strategies provided in culturally acceptable ways. Help orient refugees to surroundings and diminish psychological confusion.

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Stage 2: Destabilization (can last as long as 3 to 4 years)

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Characterized by greater upset.
The press of economic survival leads refugees to move beyond replicating life in the homeland to genuine culture learning. Anger begins to surface and resistance to learning the new culture is often expressed. Therapeutic implications: therapists engage in two roles in during the stabilization stage→ continue with teaching role and begin implementing psychotherapeutic interventions

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Stage 3: Exploration and Restabilization

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Characterized by refugees experimenting with different cultural learning strategies. Therapeutic implications: therapists act as both resource specialists and counselors.

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Stage 4: Return to Normal Life

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Major characteristic o this stage is the refugee’s ability to learn effectively the beliefs and behaviors of the new culture. Therapeutic implications: professionals function as counselors or supportive psychotherapists.

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Stage 5: Decompensation Stage

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Refugees in the decompensation phase appear to be overwhelmed by the demands of reality and are unable to cope successfully in the new country. Therapeutic implications: serious decompensation may require hospitalization and the added support of medication and psychosocial resources. Interventions during this stage tend to begin with crisis intervention and move to more long term strategies.

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Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder (2001).

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Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An international perspective

Front 304

The complex processes related to acculturation and immigration can best be understood in terms of

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an interactional model that takes into account the culture, identity attitudes, and preferences of the immigrants, the characteristics of the place of settlement, and the interaction among these factors.

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Ethnic identity becomes salient as part of

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the acculturation process that take place when immigrants come to a new society.

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Ethnic identity refers to

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an individual’s sense of self in terms of membership in a particular ethnic group.

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An aspect of the setting that may interact with identity choices in the immigrant policy of the host country

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the extent to which a country supports the process of integration by respecting cultural diversity.

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Ethnic Identity and Psychological Well Being Among Immigrant Adolescents

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Successful acculturation has been defined in terms of mental and physical health, psychological satisfaction, high self esteem, competent work performance and good grades in school. A strong, secure ethnic identity makes a positive contribution to psychological well being. Simultaneous ethnic retention and adaptation to the new society, to be the most adaptive mode of acculturation and most conducive to immigrants’ well being.

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The process of adaptation to a new society involves intricate communication transactions in which

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immigrants try to make sense of what they expect and what is expected from them in the new setting.

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The relationship between identity and adaptation for immigrants is likely to be moderated by

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a number of additional factors, such as gender, age at the time of migration, and generation of immigration.

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Studies show that a combination of strong ethnic identity and a strong national identity promotes

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the best adaptation.

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Week 8:

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Acculturation

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LaFromboise, Coleman & Gerton (1993).

Back 313

Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory

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The behavioral model of culture suggests that in order to be culturally competent, an individual would have to:

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1. Posses a strong personal identity 2. Have knowledge of and facility with the beliefs and values of the culture 3. Display sensitivity to the affective processes of the culture 4. Communicate clearly in the language of the given cultural group 5. Perform socially sanctioned behavior 6. Maintain active social relations with the cultural group 7. Negotiate the institutional structures of that culture.

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Models of Second Culture Acquisition

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1. Assimilation model, 2. Acculturation model, 3. Alternation model, 4. Multicultural model, 5. Fusion model

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Assimilation Model

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assumes an ongoing process of absorption into the culture that is perceived as dominant or more desirable

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Acculturation Model

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similar to assimilation in it’s focus on the acquisition of the majority group’s culture, emphasis on a unidirectional relationship between the two cultures and assumption of a hierarchical relationship between the two cultures. Differences→the acculturation model implies that the individual, while becoming a competent participant in the majority culture, will always be identify as a member of the minority culture.

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Alternation Model

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assumes that it is possible for an individual to know and understand two different cultures and that an individual can alter his/her behavior to fit a particular social context.

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Multicultural Model

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promotes a pluralistic approach to understanding the relationship between two or more cultures. This model addresses the feasibility of cultures maintaining distinct identities while individuals form one culture work with those of other culture to serve common national or economic needs.

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Fusion Model

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represents the assumptions behind the melting pot theory, suggests that cultures sharing an economic, political, or geographic space will fuse together until they are indistinguishable to form a new culture.

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Bicultural competence

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as a result of living in two cultures grows out of the alternation model

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Literature on biculturalism consistently assumes that an individual living within two cultures will

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suffer from various forms of psychological distress.

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Dimensions in which an individual may need to develop competence in order to effectively manage the process of living in two cultures:

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1. Knowledge of cultural beliefs and values. Cultural awareness and knowledge involves the degree to which an individual is aware of and knowledgeable about the history and institutions, rituals, and everyday practice of a given culture. 2. Positive attitudes toward both majority and minority groups 3. Bicultural efficacy: belief that one can live effectively and in a satisfying manner, within two groups without compromising one’s sense of cultural identity. 4. Communication ability: individual’s effectiveness in communicating ideas and feelings to members of a given culture, both verbally and nonverbally 5. Role repertoire: range of culturally or situationally appropriate behaviors or roles and individual has developed. 6. A sense of being grounded: having stable social networks in both cultures.

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Model of Bicultural Competence

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The model assumes that there are hierarchical relations among these skills, some of the skills may be developed before others. Primary emphasis of the model is on the reciprocal relationship between a person and his/her environment

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Fryer (2006).

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“Acting White” The social price paid by the best and brightest minority students

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Acting white

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a set of social interactions in which minority adolescents in which minority adolescents who get good grades in school enjoy less social popularity than white students who do well academically.

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Evidence indicates that the social disease, whatever its cause, is most prevalent in

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racially integrated public schools. less of a problem in the private sector and in predominantly black public schools.

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Meaning of “acting white”

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Most definitions include a reference to situations where some minority adolescents ridicule their minority peers for engaging in behaviors perceived to be characteristic of whites. It is the fact that reading a book or getting good grades might be perceived as acting white that makes the topic a matter of national concern.

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Ethnography vs. Statistics

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Fryer’s findings confirm the existence of acting white among blacks as well as among Hispanics. Two ethnographers traced the roots of the “oppositional culture” to institutionalized racism within American society, which they contend led blacks to define academic achievement as the prerogative of whites and to invest themselves instead in alternative pursuits.

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New Evidence of Acting White

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Even after accounting for many factors that affect student popularity, evidence remains strong that acting white is a genuine issue. High achieving black are more popular within their ethnic group than high achieving whites are within theirs. A black students with straight As is no more popular than a black students with a 2.9 GPA, but high achieving whites are at the top of the popularity pyramid. A Hispanic students with a 4.0 GPA is the least popular of all Hispanic students, and Hispanic/white differences among high achievers are the most extreme. Black and Hispanic students with a GPA above 3.5 have fewer cross ethnic friendships than those with lower grades. For the small percentage of black and Hispanic students who attend private school there is no evidence of a trade off between popularity and achievement. Most studies of academic achievement find little or no benefit of attending a private school for white students but quite large benefits for African Americans.

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The Segregated School: Is it an Advantage?

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Acting white is unique to those schools where black students comprise less than 80% of the student population. No evidence at all that getting good grades adversely affects students’ popularity

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Anthropologists have long observed that social groups seek to

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preserve their identity, an activity that accelerates when threats to internal cohesion intensify. Groups may try to reinforce their identity by penalizing members for differentiating themselves from the group. A positive relationship between academic achievement and peer group acceptance will erode and turn negative whenever the group as a whole has lower levels of achievement.

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The oppositional culture theory accounts for observed differences between blacks and whites as follows:

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White people provide blacks with inferior schooling and treat them differently in school. By imposing a job ceiling, white people fail to reward blacks adequately for their academic achievement in adult life. Black Americans develop coping devices which, in turn, further limit their striving for academic success. The problem arose partly because white people traditionally refused to acknowledge that black people were capable of intellectual achievement and partly because black people subsequently began to doubt their own intellectual ability, began to define academic success as white people’s prerogative, and began to discourage their peers, perhaps unconsciously, from emulating white people in striving for academic success.

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Week 8:

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Class and Psychology

Front 335

*Smith (2005).

Back 335

Psychotherapy, classism, and the poor.*

Front 336

Psychotherapists’ willingness and ability to work with the poor is compromised by

Back 336

persistent, unexamined classist attitudes.

Front 337

The conceptual isolation of class is helpful for the purpose of discussion but does not

Back 337

accurately represent the complex interactions among class, race, ethnicity, gender, and/or sexual orientation that characterize lived experience.

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People living near or beneath the poverty line will be described as

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poor (social as well as economic condition).

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Classism

Back 339

the result of class privilege and power. Classism is a form of oppression. Oppression can be understood as prejudice plus power. Members of both dominant and subordinate groups are capable of prejudice but only dominant groups have the institutional and cultural power to enforce their prejudices via oppression.

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Psychotherapy and Poor Clients: The 1960s

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issue of psychotherapeutic treatment for the poor came into focus with the community mental health center (CMHC) movement in the 1960s.

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Psychotherapy and Poor Clients: The 1970s

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As CMHCs opened their doors during the 1970s, a new more culturally aware interpretation of these treatment difficulties began to emerge: Poor clients were faced with middle class therapists who disliked working with them and held out little hope of a beneficial prognosis and thus failed to show improvement and/or left treatment.

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When therapists have the skills and awareness needed to understand class related attitudes and issues, then

Back 342

psychotherapy with anyone.

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Feminist psychology

Back 343

began its own process of self examination and became a source of advocacy for services to poor clients and the development of class-related cultural competence among therapists.

Front 344

Family systems therapy

Back 344

use an approach that affords an opportunity to consider poverty as it affects psychotherapeutic treatment.

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2000s and Beyond: Psychology today presents 2 faces regarding the poor:

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1. On the one hand recent contributions to the psych literature suggest that poor people have again receded into the background of psychological concern, “fear of the poor” 2. On the other hand there are better intentions articulated within the field of psychology.

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Unconscious distancing from the poor overrides

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the better intentions that clearly exist among psychologists, with the result that the poor are “disappeared” from many psychologists’ professional and personal worlds.

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Classism among psychotherapists manifests itself in

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distinct attitudinal barriers that deter advocacy for the funding and development of psychological services for poor people and that also compromises the delivery of such services.

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Classist Attitudinal Barriers: Four examples

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1. Poor people are forced to contend with so many overwhelming day to day problems that they have no use for what a psychologist can offer. what they need is assistance with identifying important basic resources and problem solving. Psychotherapists can offer people what they offer everyone else: an opportunity to become differentially and more fully conscious of their feelings and actions, to become more aware of the societal forces at work in their lives, to imagine and reach for new goals, and to do so within the parameters of a safe interpersonal alliance. 2. Poor people contend with so many overwhelming day to day problems that psychologists who work with them can experience their own interventions, even when helpful, as diminished in significance. 3. Working in a poor community takes away the comfort of not knowing how poor people live. 4. Conventional psychological services are neither familiar to nor widely accepted in the cultures of many poor and working class communities, so that even poor people who could benefit will not be as likely to use them.

Front 349

Liu, Soleck, Hopps, Dunston, & Pickett (2004).

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A new framework to understand social class in counseling: The social class worldview model and modern classism theory.

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For social class as an economic system and for classism as a discriminatory and prejudicial function of social class, to continue, social class must be

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situated within a network of their oppressions.

Front 351

Comprehending how people enculturate and acquire skills knowledge, values, motives, and roles appropriate to their position in a group or society is critical in

Back 351

developing multiculturally appropriate diagnoses and treatment

Front 352

Social Class in Counseling Research

Back 352

People differ in their worldview depending on factors such as region of the country and lifestyle considerations such as free time, occupation autonomy and property ownership.

Front 353

Subjectivity in social class perception

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Consistent use of “objective” indices rather than subjective criteria to understand social class and classism. This does not explore the secondary gains of education such as social networks and culturally appropriate behaviors. Another problem using objective indices is the assumption that classism and stratification can only occur among individuals who possess income, education, or occupation. Social class cannot exist without classism because classism is the behavioral and attitudinal manifestations that buttress stratification and inequality.

Front 354

Context and Motivation: The Capital Accumulation Paradigm (CAP)

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“money” as one indicator of social class may not be sufficient to explain people’s motivations and intent.

Front 355

Premise of CAP

Back 355

People may accumulate what they believe are valued assets in a particular environment as a reflection of their subjective social class worldview, which also allows them to remain congruent with the values and expectations of that environment. Resources and capital are not always referring to money.

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Three types of capital that people strive to accumulate:

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1. Social Capital: those relationships and affiliations that can be translated into social class benefits. 2. Human Capital: the perceived value derived from education, occupations, interpersonal skills, and/or innate physical attributes that are valued in a community 3. Cultural Capital: can be conceived of as the tastes and aesthetics that people develop and refine. One avenue people use to display their social class and involve themselves in the values and expectations of their environment. Economic cultures locate the individual within an economic context that helps to determine what capital is valued and how it will be used.

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The Social Class Worldview Model (SCWM)

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The SCWM is a schema that people use to make sense of their social class perceptions, feelings, economic environments, and cultures.

Front 358

Assumptions of the SCWM:

Back 358

1. Social class operates at an individual and subjective level in people’s lives. 2. Social class at the individual level is a socially constructed phenomenon derived from the individual’s perception of the environment. 3. Individuals seek congruency between the various domains of the SCWM as a way to cope with the demands and expectations of their economic culture and maximize their opportunities to accumulate the valued capital within that economic culture.

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The SCWM comprises five interrelated domains that are derived from the social class literature:

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1. Consciousness Attitudes and Salience: an individuals capacity to articulate and understand the relevance and meaningfulness of social class in his or her environment. 2. Referent Groups: the people in an individuals life who help guide the development of a SCWM and mediate social class behaviors. (Group of origin, Peer/cohort group, Group of aspiration) 3. Property Relationships: materials people value, use to define themselves, expect as a part of their worldview, and use to exclude others. 4. Lifestyle: the way individuals choose to organize their time and resources, within a social classed context, to remain congruent with their economic culture. 5. Behaviors: social class behaviors are learned and socialized, purposeful and instrumental actions that reinforce an individual’s social class worldview.

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Classism and the Modern Class Theory (MCT)

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Classism is prejudice and discrimination based on social class resulting from individuals from different perceived social classes.

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Modern classism accounts for the fact that it is possible for

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people in perceived “lower social class” to display classist behaviors and attitudes. By only addressing downward classism, many others may be excused from confronting their own classist attitudes and behaviors. Classism functions to provide both rationalization and behavioral strategies toward accumulation of capital.

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Upward classism

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defined as prejudice and discrimination directed toward individuals who are perceived to be of a higher social class.

Front 363

Downward classism

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involves the prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior against people and groups that are perceived to be below the perceiver.

Front 364

Lateral classism

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classist attitudes and behaviors among people perceived to be of a similar social class group to render individuals’ social class worldview back into alignment with others in that perceived social class group.

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Internalized classism

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results from a violation of the values, norms, and expectations of an individual’s economic culture, and social class worldview.

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How the SCWM & MCT Operate: The first level relates to the fact that the context in which people exist is the economic culture.

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The economic culture has certain expectations for social, human, and cultural capital that individuals must meet to maintain their perceived position and status. An individual’s social class worldview is constructed to be congruent with the expectations and values of an economic culture such that his/her lifestyle is shaped and determined by the economic culture. The social class worldview operates as the lens through which classism is perceived and operates in an individual’s life.

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How the SCWM & MCT Operate: The second level is the intrapsychic level, where the SCWM exists.

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The SCWM is the perceptual and cognitive schema that people possess within an economic culture.

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How the SCWM & MCT Operate: The third level is the external world on which

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individuals act in order to accrue the human, social, and cultural capitals valued by their economic culture.

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Counseling and Research Implications

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It is imperative for counselors in training to confront their own classist attitudes and behaviors. Counselors using these theories should consider asking clients about how money and finance issues are communicated in their family.

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Week 9:

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Genetics and Poverty

Front 371

Rowe & Rodgers (1997).

Back 371

Poverty and behavior: Are environmental measures nature and nurture?

Front 372

Critique of the Child Development special issue on poverty

Back 372

Researchers studying the relations of poverty or family income to child outcomes have ignored the possibility that poverty, itself, the environments provided by parents, and children’s developmental outcomes are influenced by genetic factors. Therefore one can’t attribute relationships among these sets of variables solely to environmental influences

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Research should be

Back 373

directed to poverty as the dependent rather than the independent variable with a focus on heritable individual differences in abilities and personality characteristics that determine poverty.

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Behavior and genetic studies should be used when

Back 374

environmental effects of poverty are the target of investigation.

Front 375

Structural modeling procedures designed to identify

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genetic and environmental contributions to ethnic and racial differences in poverty are proposed as a means of understanding the high proportion of African American and Hispanic individuals in poverty.

Front 376

No single behavior genetic research design can

Back 376

simultaneously answer all the research questions about poverty.

Front 377

Huston, McLoyd & Coll (1997).

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Poverty and behavior: The case for multiple methods and levels of analysis.

Front 378

Research investigating the relations among poverty, home environment, and child outcomes within biologically related families has the potential to

Back 378

confound genetic and environmental influences but conventional behavioral genetic methods have serious limitations for understanding environmental influences.

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Within family environment variations

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this approach rests on the assumption that family environments are equally similar for twins, full siblings, and step siblings. The complex interactions between environments and individuals make it difficult to equate the impact of environmental conditions on human beings.

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Measurement of environment

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Separate the genetic and environmental components of parents’ contributions to their children’s attributes in the study of adopted children. The major problem with this model is that it doesn’t measure environment directly and does not include the contributions of any feature of the environment other than the parents’ level of the characteristic being measured.

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Children living in poverty are exposed to

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more extreme environmental conditions than those in more comfortable circumstances. Such extreme conditions may exert a stronger influence, relative to genetic make up, than is the case for children in relatively affluent white families in the US.

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Behavioral genetic studies can make an important contribution to understanding the effects of poverty on development if they

Back 382

incorporate ways of understanding the relations between genetic and environmental influences.

Front 383

Studying environmental processes, both

Back 383

objectively observed and subjectively experienced, is crucial.

Front 384

A number of investigations using large representative databases have shown that family income or poverty status predicts

Back 384

performance on cognitive tests of vocab, reading, and math as well as internalizing and externalizing problems.

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In an analysis of a sample of poor African American children, maternal education predicted

Back 385

children’s adult educational attainment, but paternal education did not. As many of the children lived only with their mothers, this discrepancy suggests that a substantial portion of the contribution of parental education may have occurred through environmental influences.

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The rates of child poverty in the US are considerably higher than

Back 386

those in other Western industrialized countries. The discrepancy between the highest and lowest income families is much larger in the US than in other countries. As a consequence of high levels of inequality in families’ access to resources and services needed to promote children’s development, America’s social policies appear to exaggerate rather than minimize the impact of family SES and income on children’s development.

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Racial and Ethnic Differences in Poverty

Back 387

Exposure to historic and contemporary racial and ethnic discrimination is one critical causal factor that has been ignored in most studies assessing similarity of causal models of development for minority and European American children. Racial discrimination casts a long shadow on the economic status of African Americans through increasing African Americans’ vulnerability to structural changes in the economy and fostering negative biases about the comparative intellectual capacity of African Americans.
African Americans are more subject to negative effects of structural changes in the economy.

Front 388

*Wang & Sue (2005).

Back 388

In the eye of the storm: Race and genomics in research and practice*

Front 389

Not all biological differences are genetic

Back 389

Acquired or inherited biological differences can exist because of human population differences secondary to migration effects.

Front 390

Human Genetic Variation

Back 390

Of the roughly 20 million variable sites in the human genome 85% accounts for within group genetic diversity, with the remaining 10% representing variation between any 2 geographically distinct groups and 5% between groups from different continents. Traits do not cluster in rigidly bounded populations but gradually change in frequency from one geographic region to another. This pattern of continuous variation is called clinical variation. Human genetic variation patterns are influenced by population and migration history

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The power of racialized thinking is derived from

Back 391

social impressions that race is biological and inextricable from a person’s essential character thereby having scientific legitimacy. We believe the faults usually lie in problems of external validity where research findings and clinical applications are overgeneralized because of vague or unclear race or population descriptions and using race proxies in research designs, data analyses, and clinical interventions.

Front 392

Recommendations

Back 392

1. Failure to acknowledge intragroup variation can lead to overgeneralized clinical and research conclusion and thus problems of external validity. 2. The state of psychological research is weakened by professional preferences and a selective encouragement of internal validity over external validity as defining quality research. 3. Geneticists and social and behavioral clinicians and researchers must attend to conceptual clarity by operationalizing population and racial categories and avoiding race proxies for other biological, social, and cultural constructs in research and clinical practice.

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Conceptual Clarity

Back 393

1. Researchers frequently fail to operationalize what they mean when using population categories and sometimes it is unclear what the race demographic variable is actually measuring. 2. Because a person’s self reported identity incorporates a complex mix of biological, cultural, psychological, and behavioral factors not necessarily determined by genotype or biology, racial self-referents can be highly variable and arbitrary, varying as a function of time, history, law, politics, social context and emotions. 3. If researchers choose to use ancestral geography as a strategy for defining population, they must explicitly operationalize what they mean by ancestry and geography and clearly state their underlying assumptions. 4. Investigators will be able to investigate their questions with greater scientific rigor because they will have identified and included potential environmental and cultural proxy variables as possible independent, moderating, or mediating study variables.

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Race as a Second Order Construct

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Race is often used as a proxy for assumed biological, genetic, social, psychological, and other phenotypic factors including people’s beliefs about ancestry, nationality, language, religion, skin color, racial identity attitudes etc. Psychologists should explore more stepwise and complex linear models and data analyses that use race as a moderating and/or mediating variable instead of as an independent variable.

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Race, Genetics, and Health Disparities

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One way to investigate the issues of race is to be more thoughtful about what race means as a distal or proximal variable when doing research on population and health disparities. Population based conclusions should be considered only when other possible proxy or confounding factors have been taken into account. Researchers and clinicians should not avoid using using the variable race because it is important as a social and cultural construct. If race is being examined as a proxy for other variables, the other variables should also be studied.

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Implications for Clinical Practice

Back 396

1. Of critical importance is the clinician’s ability to evaluate the client’s psychological and pragmatic experiences of being a member of a racial group 2. Understanding the meanings of race is critical for clinicians. Clinicians must also be self reflective of how their own racialized experiences have influenced their attitudes and behaviors toward similar and different racial groups compared to their own. 3. Clinicians must appreciate the importance of race and culture and determine how racial and cultural factors operate and influence the treatment context and their clients’ mental health. 4. In the mental health treatment context, it is important to examine social, political, and racial group status. Clinicians must be informed of their clients’ and own overt and covert cultural, social, and political histories that may augment or jeopardize therapeutic alliances especially in treatment interactions. 5. Clinicans will need to distinguish and more prescisely understand racial, cultural group experiences of clients.6. Clinicians should be aware that research on the effectiveness of treatments has been primarily conducted on US middle-class people of European ancestry.

Front 397

Final Thoughts

Back 397

1. Geneticists and social and behavioral scientists and clinicans must recognize how their own unclear use of race creates havoc for scientific, clinical, and health policy enterprises 2. Coverty accepting a de facto biological imperative about race in research designs, data analyses, and clinical applications and using race as a proxy for other variables may continue to distract research and clinical efforts away from relevant variables that may be pivotal in understanding people within their social, cultural, genetic, and environmental contexts. 3. One way geneticists and social and behavioral scientists can begin collaborating is to develop interdisciplinary approaches to the study of race and health

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Week 9:

Back 398

Cultural Biases, Competencies & Mental Health

Front 399

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2001).

Back 399

Chapter 2, Culture Counts: The Influence of Culture and Society on Mental Health

Front 400

Culture is important because it influences

Back 400

what all people bring to the clinical setting.

Front 401

Some aspects of culture may also underlie culture bound syndromes

Back 401

sets of symptoms much more common in some societies than in others.

Front 402

Culture influences the meanings people give to

Back 402

their illness.

Front 403

The culture of the clinician is also

Back 403

a factor.

Front 404

Culture refers to a group’s shared set of

Back 404

beliefs, norms, and values

Front 405

Symptoms, Presentation, & Meaning

Back 405

1.The symptoms of mental disorders are found worldwide 2. Culture may affect how patients describe symptoms, patients in different cultures tend to selectively express or present symptoms in culturally acceptable ways. 3. The meaning of an illness: deep seated attitudes and beliefs a culture holds about whether an illness is “real” or “imagined,” whether it is of the body or the mind (or both), whether it warrants sympathy, how much stigma surrounds it, what might cause it, and what type of person might succumb to it. This meaning influences whether and how people choose to seek treatment.

Front 406

Causation and Prevalence

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1. Mental illness is considered the product of a complex interaction among biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors. The strength of the role of any one of these depends on the disorder 2. Cultural and social context weigh more heavily in causation of depression. Evidence points to social and cultural factors, including exposure to poverty and violence, playing a greater role in the onset of major depression. 3. Cultural and social factors have the most direct role in the causation PTSD. Alarming rates of PTSD in communities with a high degree of pre immigration exposure to trauma 4. The US has an aggregate rate of about 20 percent of adults and children with diagnosable mental disorders

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Family Factors

Back 407

Supportive families and good sibling relationships can protect against the onset of mental illness. A family environment marked by severe marital discord, overcrowding, and social disadvantage can contribute to the onset of mental illness. Schizophrenia relapse: European American patients are more likely to relapse if they return to families with high expressed emotions. Mexican American patients are more likely to relapse if they return to families characterized by distance and lack of warmth.

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Coping Styles: Culture influences how people cope

Back 408

Some Asian American groups, tend not to dwell on upsetting thoughts, thinking that reticence or avoidance is better than outward expression. African Americans tend to take an active approach in facing personal problems, rather than avoiding them

Front 409

Treatment Seeking

Back 409

1. Racial and ethnic minorities in the US are less likely than whites to seek mental health treatment, which largely accounts for their under-representation in most mental health services 2. People from ethnic minorities are often more likely to wait until symptoms are sever before seeking treatment and are more likely to seek treatment from primary care providers 3. American Indians and Alaska Natives often rely on traditional healers, who frequently work side by side with formal providers in tribal mental health programs 4. African Americans often rely on ministers, who may play various mental health roles as counselor, diagnostician, or referral agent

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Mistrust

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Mistrust is a major barrier to the receipt of mental health treatment by racial and ethnic minorities. Almost half of African Americans, as opposed to 20 percent of whites, reported being afraid of mental health treatment. Mistrust of clinicians by minorities arises, from historical persecution and from present-day struggles with racism and discrimination. Mistrust is also related to incidences of mistreatment in mental health services

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Stigma

Back 411

a cluster of negative attitudes and beliefs that motivate the general public to fear, reject, avoid, and discriminate against people with mental illness. In response to societal stigma, people with mental problems internalize public attitudes and become so embarrassed or ashamed that they often conceal symptoms and fail to seek treatment.

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Immigration

Back 412

Migration can influence mental health through the acculturative stress related to adapting to a new culture. The psychological stress associated with immigration tends to be concentrated in the first three years after arrival in the US

Front 413

Culture of the Clinician

Back 413

Health professionals in the United States, and the institutions in which they train and practice, are rooted in Western medicine. Most clinicians share a worldview about the interrelationship among body, mind, and environment, informed by knowledge acquired through the scientific method. Because of the professional culture of the clinician, some degree of distance between clinician and patient always exists, regardless of the ethnicity of each. Clinicians also bring to the therapeutic setting their own personal cultures.

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Communication

Back 414

The emphasis on verbal communication yields greater potential for miscommunication when clinician and patient come from different cultural backgrounds, even if they speak the same language. Overt and subtle forms of miscommunication and misunderstanding can lead to misdiagnosis, conflicts over treatment, and poor adherence to a treatment plan.

Front 415

Clinicians and Bias

Back 415

Misdiagnosis also can arise from clinician bias and stereotyping of ethnic and racial minorities. Clinicians often reflect the attitudes and discriminatory practices of their society

Front 416

Evidence Based Treatment and Minorities

Back 416

The gap between research and practice is even worse for racial and ethnic minorities.

Front 417

Culturally Competent Services

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Tailoring services to the specific needs of these groups will improve utilization and outcomes. A common theme across models of cultural competence is that they make treatment effectiveness for a culturally diverse clientele the responsibility of the system, not of the people seeking treatment.

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Racism, Discrimination, and Mental Health

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Minority groups commonly report experiences with racism and discrimination, and they consider these experiences to be stressful. Racism and discrimination adversely affect health and mental health, and they place minorities at risk for mental disorders such as depression and anxiety.

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Sue (1998).

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In search of cultural competence in psychotherapy and counseling.

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Cultural competence

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the belief that people should not only appreciate and recognize other cultural groups but also to be able to effectively work with them.

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The Search for Cultural Competence

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One of the most frequently cited problems in delivering mental health services to ethnic minority groups is the cultural and linguistic mismatches that occur between clients and providers.

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Recommendations for culturally responsive treatments:

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1. Necessity to know the culture of clients, to be sensitive and flexible in dealing with clients, and to achieve credibility 2. Services should be delivered in ways that are consistent with the cultural backgrounds of clients.

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The Cultural Match Studies

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1. Asian American generally attended more sessions, had less drop out, and better treatment outcomes when they saw a therapist who was matched ethnically and/or linguistically. Similar but less dramatic effects were found for Mexican Americans. 2. Ethnic matches were significantly related to attending more sessions for African Americans and Whites. Whites had lower rates of premature termination when they were ethnically matched 3 Treatment outcomes for African Americans and Whites were not related to ethnic match.

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Ethnic specific services

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those that have a large ethnic clientele and presumably try to respond to the cultural needs of clients. Ethnic clients who attended ethnic specific programs had lower dropout rates and stayed in the programs longer than did those using mainstream services.

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Therapist conceptions and their congruence with those of the clients are related to

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therapeutic outcomes.

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Dilemmas in Culturally Competent Research

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worry of ending up with segregated services.

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Cultural Competency Ingredients

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1. Being scientifically minded. Forming hypotheses rather than making premature conclusions about the status of culturally different clients, who develop creative ways to test hypotheses, and who act on the basis of acquired data. 2. Dynamic Sizing. Therapist has appropriate skills in knowing when to generalize and be inclusive and when to individualize and be exclusive. Allows therapists to avoid stereotypes of members of a group why still appreciating the importance of culture. 3. Cultural Specific Elements: Good knowledge and understanding of their own worldviews, Specific knowledge of the cultural groups with which they work, Understand sociopolitical influences, Possess specific skills needed in working with culturally different groups, Able to use culturally based interventions and have the ability to translate interventions into culturally consistent strategies.

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Week 10:

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Cultural Competence in Treatment & Interventions

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Whaley (2001).

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Cultural mistrust: An important construct for Diagnosis & Treatment of African Americans

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Paranoid schizophrenia has been documented as the most diagnosed disorder among

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African Americans. Cultural mistrust is a construct used to explain this phenomena. The central hypothesis is that clinicians’ misinterpretations of cultural mistrust as clinical paranoia contributes to the misdiagnosis of African Americans as schizophrenic.

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African Americans who have high cultural mistrust tend to have

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more negative views and expectations of White counselors. This mistrust may lead to less openness and reporting in therapy. Cultural mistrust indicates that an adaptive response to a racist society may be misinterpreted as pathology by mental health professionals.

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Cultural mistrust has been associated with

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negative outcomes for African Americans

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Research indicates that paranoid thinking is a mechanism by which

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individuals protect the self against negative affective states (e.g. anxiety, guilt, low self esteem) associated with personal failures by attributing blame to others.

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Treatment

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Clinicians must first be aware of and acknowledge racism as a legitimate concern with mental health consequences for the Black experience in America. Discussions of racism as a clinical issue, even with those patients with severe mental illness, may prove to be a positive experience because of its cultural relevance to African Americans. Clinicians also need to be aware of their own cultural biases and the possibility of their being manifested during therapeutic encounters with Blacks seeking mental health care.

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Cultural mistrust has a significant impact on

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the attitudes and behaviors of African Americans

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Clinicians treating African Americans with high levels of cultural mistrust must acknowledge

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the possibility that such reaction is a legitimate method of coping with racism and discrimination.

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Montero (1998).

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Psychosocial community work as an alternative mode of political action (The construction and critical transformation of society).

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Psychosocial Work in Communities

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Joint efforts of psychologists (external agents) and the community members (internal agents) for change.

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Two principles guiding the process:

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1. The reality principle: leads us to analyze how circumstances actually are perceived, how things are defined in the moment. 2. The possibilities principle: involves assessing where the community wants to go, what kind of changes are needed and what is the ideal and goals to be reached.

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Characteristics of Community Social Psychology

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1.A holistic perspective, including social factors of an environmental, cultural, political, economic nature. 2. Rejection of the medical model 3. An emphasis on social change 4. Its goal is social and individual change 5. Joining both ordinary and scientific contributions 6. Process of empowerment and maintenance of networks. 7. Conceives of people as social actors 8. Communities decide their destinies. 9. An ecological perspective is assumed 10. Research incorporates participation of the community 11. Has political character

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Important processes

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1. Conscientization: process of awakening of the consciousness, or mobilization of the contents of the conscience with regard to situations or events that have been previously ignored. 2. De naturalizing: a critical process that allows us not to accept as unchangeable that which is presented to us as inherent as the way things are in this world.