Dimensions Of Leadership

Front 1

Transactional/Transformational Leadership

Back 1

Burns (1978)

Hint 1

Transactional and transformational leadership proposed: Burns is credited with initially proposing the theories of transactional and transformational leadership.

Transactional leaders - those who lead others in exchange for something of value.

Transformational leaders - seek to appeal to and influence the moral values of the followers and inspire them to reform and revamp their organizations.

Front 2

Transactional/transformational leadership

Back 2

Bass (1985)

Hint 2

Transactional and transformational leadership defined:

Bass outlined how a leader can influence the motivation of individual followers and increase their performance.

Front 3

Transactional Leadership

Back 3

Bass (1990)

Hint 3

Impact of transactional leadership: Transactional leadership could result in mediocre performance as individuals perform at minimum levels, seeking to maximize the rewards for additional work completed.

Front 4

Transformational Leadership - MLQ

Back 4

Bass and Avolio (1990)

Hint 4

Multifactor leadership questionnaire: Developed the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) to measure:

• laissez faire,
• transactional and
• transformational behaviors in leaders.

This measure is one of the most commonly used measures for transformational leadership.

Front 5

Charismatic Leadership

Back 5

Bennis and Nanus, (1985), Hogan, Raskin, & Fazzini (1990)

Hint 5

Charismatic and Visionary CEOs: Charismatic CEOs do not predict success of an organization. Visionary CEOs do not have a higher propensity for avoiding poor financial outcomes.

Front 6

Transformational Leadership

Back 6

Avolio, Waldman and Yammarino (1991)

Hint 6

The 4 I’s of transformational leadership:

• idealized influence,
• inspirational motivation,
• intellectual stimulation, and
• individualized consideration.

Front 7

Transformational Leadership

Back 7

Bass and Avolio (1994)

Hint 7

Developing transformational leaders and improving organizational effectiveness: Bass and Avolio outlined ways to develop transformational leaders and improve organizational effectiveness.

Front 8

Transformational/transactional Leadership

Back 8

Bass and Avolio (1994)

Hint 8

Full range of leadership: Proposed that the full range of leadership (transactional and transformational) applied to specific areas of leadership, management and organizational development. Leaders that use a combination of both behaviors are able to increase their effectiveness and the organization’s effectiveness.

Front 9

Transformational Leadership

Back 9

Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, (1996)

Hint 9

Transformational leadership and subordinate motivation: Examined a large number of research studies and provided support for the theory that transformational leadership enhances subordinate motivation and performance.

Front 10

Charismatic Leadership

Back 10

Conger and Kanungo (1998

Hint 10

Effectiveness of charismatic leaders: The researchers outlined that charismatic leaders were more effective than non- charismatic leaders.

Front 11

Transformational/Charismatic Leadership

Back 11

Yukl (1999)

Hint 11

Transformational and charismatic leadership: Yukl argues that the constructs are distinct but overlapping.
• The study supports transformational leadership as having potentially positive outcomes and result in greater leader and organizational effectiveness.
• There is not the same empirical support for charismatic leadership improving organizational outcomes.
• Yukl calls for increased research and argues that transformational leadership does not always have positive outcomes and is highly dependent on the situation.

Front 12

Transformational Leadership

Back 12

Bass and Steidlmeier (1999)

Hint 12

Moral, ethical and authentic dimension of Transformational Leadership: Re-emphasized that to be truly transformational, a leader must also be moral, ethical and authentic. Defined the term pseudo-transformational and the dark side of transformational leadership for leaders that had transformational behaviors, but lacked authentic, moral and ethical leadership.

Front 13

Transformational Leadership

Back 13

Carless, Wearing and Mann (2000)

Hint 13

Transformational leader:
• communicates a vision,
• develops staff,
• provides support,
• empowers staff,
• innovative,
• leads by example, and
• is charismatic.
The researchers also developed, a shortened measure for transformational leadership, the Global Transformational Leadership scale (GTL).

Front 14

Flexible/Situational Leadership

Back 14

Silverthorne and Wang (2001)

Hint 14

Flexible Leadership: Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson (1996) highlighted the importance of business leaders and managers being able to adapt to the changing environment and select leadership styles that fit with the needs of the organization and subordinates.

Leadership behavior flexibility (LBF) - the leader’s experience or the number of times they are placed in a leadership role adds to their level of behavioral flexibility (Kenny and Zaccaro, 1983). The study also notes that leaders who are behaviorally flexible are more likely to lead organizations that have positive organizational outcomes.

Front 15

Flexible/Situational Leadership

Back 15

Osborn, Hunt & Jauch (2002)

Hint 15

The importance of the Situation or Organization: Reinforced the importance of the situation or organizational context in leadership theory. Reoriented leadership research and argued that effective leadership results not only from how leaders lead subordinates, but also the incremental influence of the leader as they navigate through the organizational system.

Front 16

Authentic Leadership

Back 16

• Avolio, Gardner, Walumba, Luthans and May, (2004)
• Gardner and Avolio (2005)
• Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May and Walumba (2005)

Hint 16

Authentic Leadership: Identified the importance of Authentic Leadership. To be truly impacting and beneficial to individuals, corporations and society as a whole, transformational leaders needed to possess some inner qualities beyond characteristics of effective charisma and transformational leadership.

Front 17

Ethical Leadership

Back 17

Zhu, May, and Avolio (2004); Brown, Treviño and Harrison (2005); Brown and Treviño (2006)

Hint 17

Ethical Leadership: Outlined the importance of ethical leadership and that ethical leader’s are more effective; citing their proactive concern for the ethical behavior of their followers is their differentiating characteristic from authentic and transformational leaders.

Front 18

Leadership Behavior

Back 18

Yukl (2008)

Hint 18

Leader behavior and effect on the follower vary: Stated that both leaders seek to motivate others to achieve common goals, but the behavior of the leader and the effect on the follower are different with each style.

Front 19

Transformational, Transactional, & Charismatic Leadership

Back 19

Rowold and Heinitz (2007)

Hint 19

• Transformational and charismatic leadership showed a high convergent validity but they were divergent from transactional leadership.
• Transformational and charismatic leadership “augmented the impact of transactional leadership on subjective performance.
• Transformational and charismatic leadership both contribute unique variance to subjective performance, over and above the respective other leadership style.
• Transformational leadership had a moderating impact on the relationship between transactional leadership and profit over and above transactional leadership.
• Transformational leadership augmented the impact of both transactional and charismatic leadership on profit.

Front 20

Trait approach

Back 20

Stogdill 1948

Hint 20

• Requires status through active participation
• Demonstrates ability to facilitate the efforts of the group to attain its goals
• Intelligent
• Alert to others' needs
• Understands the task
• Initiative
• Persistence in dealing with problems
• Self-confident
• Desire to accept responsibility
• Desire for the position of dominance and control

Front 21

Trait Theory

Back 21

Stogdill 1974 Review of 163 Trait Studies (1949-1970)

Hint 21

The 1904-1948 negative trait findings causes many leader researchers to reject the relevance of traits entirely. Therefore the field of leadership sailed off into situation (contingency) theories of leadership. Situation leader theorists over-emphasized the situation and under-emphasized the traits that did indeed mark leader from non-leader. There are certain traits that increase the probability that certain leaders will lead their followers successfully in a narrow range of situations.

Front 22

Great Man Theory

Back 22

Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Hint 22

Machiavelli (1469-1527) believed in the omnipotent great man, the Prince of the Italian Renaissance at the dawn of the mercantilist era. Machiavelli (1518) wrote a comedy for theater that demonstrates the trait of a great pragmatic leader: will use fraud, trickery, hypocrisy, harshness, deceit, and ruthlessness in governance in order to secure a peaceful (harmonious) outcome.

Front 23

Theory X

Back 23

McGregor 1960

Hint 23

Theory X:
• Employees inherently dislike work and will attempt to avoid it.
• Must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve desired goals.
• Shirk responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.
• Place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.

Front 24

Theory Y

Back 24

McGregor 1960

Hint 24

• Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
• Exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. Can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
• Ability to make good decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of managers.

Front 25

ROLE THEORY

Back 25

Merton 1957

Hint 25

Each social position of a leader is associated with a set of role-specific forms of behavior that together comprise a 'role set'.

Leaders negotiate conflicting expectations of their stakeholder network: employees, bosses, superiors, peers, competitors, community, suppliers, etc.

Front 26

Servant Leadership

Back 26

Greenleaf, 1977

Hint 26

Great organizations train their leaders to serve society. The servant-leader is servant first... It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead.... The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant - first to make sure that other people's highest-priority needs are being served.

The best test, and the most difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit or, at least, not be further deprived?

Front 27

Trust

Back 27

Kouzes & Posner (1993) Mayer, Davis, & Shoorman, 1995; Schindler & Thomas, 1993; Butler Jr. & Cantrell, 1984; Bartolome, 1989

Hint 27

Dimensions of Trust:
• Integrity - Honesty and truthfulness;
• Competence - Technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills;
• Consistency - Reliability, predictability, and good judgment;
• Loyalty - Willingness to protect and save face for a person;
• Openness - Willingness to share ideas and information freely

Front 28

Servant Leadership

Back 28

Greenleaf, Robert (1970). Kathleen Patterson (2003)

Hint 28

Service to followers. Empower followers, nurture followers. Only by understanding followers can the leader best know their needs and know how to deploy their talents.

Front 29

Servant leadership Model by Patterson (2003)

Back 29

Seven virtuous constructs which define servant leaders and shape their attitudes, characteristics, and behavior.
aha-vest

Hint 29

agapao love,
humility,
altruism,
vision,
trust,
empowering
serving

Front 30

Spiritual Leadership

Back 30

Fry, 2003; Fairholm (1996)

Hint 30

1. creating a vision wherein organization members experience a sense of calling in that their life has meaning and makes a difference;

2. establishing a social/organizational culture based on altruistic love whereby leaders and followers have genuine care, concern, and appreciation for both self and others, thereby producing a sense of membership and being understood and appreciated.

Front 31

Self Leadership

Back 31

Manz & Sims (1980)

Hint 31

Based on social learning theory. By taking more responsibility for their own lives, followers become less dependent on leaders for direction. Subsequently, leaders become more effective since they have to spend less time babysitting employees. Self-leadership strategies include both cognitive and behavioral strategies.

Front 32

Leader Effectiveness

Back 32

Howell & Costley 2001

Hint 32

Leader effectiveness is determined by what people do, not by some inherent personal characteristic. Leaders have to adapt their behavioral styles to fit the situations in which they find themselves.

Front 33

Triadic Reciprocal Causation

Back 33

Bandura, 1986

Hint 33

Reciprocal determinism - a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. An individual's behavior may be conditioned through the use of consequences. A person's behavior and personal factors, such as cognitive skills or attitudes can impact the environment. Reciprocal determinism is the idea that behavior is controlled or determined by the individual, through cognitive processes, and by the environment, through external social stimulus events.

Front 34

Normative Decision Style Model

Back 34

Vroom & Yetton 1973

Hint 34

Decision Making Styles:
1. Autocratic - Consult no one, decide alone. AI - Leader makes decision and does not seek information. AII - Leader makes decision but asks specific info form subordinates.
2. Consultative - CI - Leader makes decision, but asks specific info from each group member. CII - Leader decides with considerable group input and asks info from whole group.
3. Group - Democratic group decision. GI - Leader and one other person from group do mutual info exchange and decide. GII - Group decides with input from leader and a consensus is reached.
4. Delegative- Other person analyzes problem and makes the decision.

Front 35

Positional Power Theory

Back 35

French & Raven, 1968; Yukl and Falbe (1990, 1991)

Hint 35

Top executives hold all the power, but in reality, many lower participants can resist change, implement their own agendas and fight off boss-power. Power is a game of centrality in various resource and person networks.

Front 36

Vertical Dyadic Theory

Back 36

Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, (1975)

Hint 36

Leader-member exchange theory maintains that the leader and each individual member of a work group have a unique "dyadic" relationship. Therefore, the dyad, rather than the work group or the individual, is treated as the unit of analysis in leadership. In leader-group interactions, judgments are made and opinions are formed by the leader and the member of each dyad. Leaders give more positive tasks to members who they feel support them. Each dyad is seen as a social exchange or negotiated transaction of leader-member.

Front 37

Definition of Leadership

Back 37

Yukl, 2006

Hint 37

“Leadership is the process of influencing other to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.”

Front 38

Definition of Leadership

Back 38

Burns, 1978

Hint 38

• Leadership is a process of morality to the degree that leaders engage with followers on the basis of shared motives and values and goals on the basis, that is, of the followers ‘true’ needs as well as those of the leaders
• Burns (2003) contends that this form of leadership is a dynamic moral relationship that he calls “transforming leadership.”
• He contrasts transforming leadership with transactional leadership, which is an exchange of benefits or harms between leaders and followers.

Front 39

Burns & Bass

Back 39

• Burns focused on political leaders and the deliberative process in which leaders and followers influence each other,
• Bass’s work concentrated on business leaders and the psychological influence of leaders on followers.
• Both fostered research on charismatic leadership (Conger 1989; House, Spangler, and Woycke 1991), which focuses on the emotional impact of a leader’s personality, charm, or grace in inspiring a kind of devotion in followers.
• Burn’s work on transforming leadership and
• Bass’s work on transformational leadership

Front 40

Leadership vs. Management

Back 40

Yukl, 2006

Hint 40

• Managers value stability, order, and efficiency. Concerned with how things are done, and try to get people to perform better.

• Leaders value flexibility, innovation, and adaptation. Concerned with what things mean to people, and try to get them to agree about the most important things to be done.

Front 41

Leadership vs. Management

Back 41

• Without understanding the distinction between management and leadership, one cannot adequately describe the leadership process.
• Many authors have distinguished between leadership and management (Selznick, 1957; Jacobs, 1970; Zaleznik, 1977; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Graham, 1988).
• Selznick (1957) wrote that “leadership is not equivalent to office-holding or high prestige or authority or decision-making.”
• Selznick (1957) defined management as a relationship based on authority, and leadership as a relationship based on influence.
• Reicher, Platow and Haslam (2007) considered leadership in terms of the ability to influence what followers actually want to do as opposed to management, which enforces compliance using rewards and punishments

Hint 41

• Jacobs (1970) argued that management “resides in the relationship between positions in an organization, and derived from consensually validated role expectations for the position incumbents involved.” Leadership was described as an interaction between persons in which one presents information of a sort and in such as manner that the other becomes convinced that this or her outcomes will be improved if he or she behaves in the manner suggested or desired.
• Yukl (2006) described qualities of a manager as concern for “stability, order, and efficiency whereas leaders value flexibility, innovation, and adaptation.”
• Rost (1991) described management as unidirectional authority and leadership as multidirectional relationships.

Front 42

Power Types and Sources

Back 42

French and Raven (1959) from Yukl (2006)

Hint 42

1. Reward power: Follower complies in order to obtain rewards controlled by the leader
2. Coercive power: Follower complies in order to avoid punishment controlled by leader
3. Legitimate power: Follower complies because he believes the leader has the right to make the request and the follower has the obligation to comply
4. Expert power: Follower complies because he believes the leader has special knowledge about the best way to do something
5. Referent power: Follower complies because he admires or identifies with the leader and wants to gain the leader’s approval

Front 43

Ethics and Leadership
Burns (2003) - morality and ethics are an essential element of leadership; transforming leadership is focused on the moral elevation of followers or social reform.

Back 43

• Most research on ethics concentrates on testing the effectiveness of leaders who have certain moral qualities (Brown and Treviño 2006).
• Application of the ethics literature to the social science research from leadership studies (Ciulla 2008; Price 2005).

Hint 43

• Burns (1978, 2003) - must be an ethical and moral component to leadership. Without an ethical or moral standard it cannot be leadership.
• Ciulla (1998) wrote about the issue of whether or not Hitler was a leader. If you agree with Burns, that leadership has a moral component which influences others in a positive way, then you must conclude that Hitler was not a leader. He was a masterful mis-leader.

Front 44

Christian Leadership

Back 44

• Difference between how Jesus demonstrated and encouraged leadership (John 13:1-17) and the modern heroic leadership styles commonly seen in companies today (Bradford and Cohen, 1998).
• Jesus taught that one who wishes to lead must be a servant first (Servant Leadership).
• The heroic leadership perspective was all about the leader being served to achieve the desired goals set by the individual leader.
• Christian leadership is focused on the attitude and conduct of the individual, as opposed to the organization they lead.

Hint 44

• Delbecg (1999) found that Christian executives in the business world were focused more on a calling of service, rather than just the job.
• Bradford and Cohen (1998) explained that the problem with the heroic leadership perspective was the assumption that it is the leader who is responsible for determining the right answers and managing the unit assigned.

Front 45

Christian Leadership

Back 45

• A comparison of the Christian perspective from Matthew 5 (Beatitudes) and the notion of shared leadership (Pearce and Conger, 2003) and servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977) leads to a good model for the role of executives in facilitative and enabling their organizations to effectively deal with complex and dynamic environments.
• Jesus did not intend to be the single leader. Instead, he intended for each of his followers to share in the leadership to transform the world.

Hint 45

• The Beatitudes describe the leadership attributes required by the followers of Jesus (Winston, 2002). First beatitude is about being poor in spirit. Leaders should be humble and respectful of others.
• Other principles derived from the Beatitudes include deep caring for others, being fair, controlled discipline, striving for what is right, being merciful, and encouraging cooperation and communication.

Front 46

Christian Leadership

Back 46

Lawrence, 1987

Hint 46

Seven distinctions of Christian leadership:
1. Submission to Christ
2. Christian character - congruence between attitude, word, and action including integrity and draw others to listen and respond to the leadership.
3. Holy Spirit as the source of leadership
4. Empowerment of the Holy Spirit
5. Ambition - Drive and desire to carry the burdens and responsibilities of leadership to overcome obstacles and attain organizational goals in the name of Christ.
6. Motivation - Love and concern for their fellow members or workers is the source.
7. Authority - Gained through service to those they lead. Authority is earned.

Front 47

Transformational Leadership

Back 47

Burns (1978) noted that transforming leaders sought to appeal to and influence the moral values of the followers and inspire them to reform and revamp their organizations

Hint 47

Bass (1985), inspired by Burns, outlined how a leader can influence the motivation of individual followers and increase their performance

Front 48

Shared Leadership

Back 48

- Pearce & Conger, 2003
• The key difference with shared leadership is that the influence process is more than just vertical between leader and follower. Instead, leadership is broadly distributed among sets of individuals, to include peers, where leadership is viewed as an activity rather than the attributes of a single individual who fills a position of authority.
• In this paradigm, leadership is not determined by authority, but instead by an individual’s capacity to influence peers and by the leadership needs of the team at a given moment or situation (Pearce and Conger, 2003). It is recognized that each member brings a unique perspective, knowledge and capability to the team.

Hint 48

Heifetz, 1994

A shared process of enhancing the capability of people to accomplish collective work effectively.

Front 49

Leadership in All or Leaderfulness

Back 49

Raelin, 2003

Hint 49

• Need for communities where everyone shares the experience of serving as a leader, concurrently and collectively, all at the same time and all together.
• Leaderful - leadership is distributed across all members of the organization.
• Mutual model of leadership that incorporates everyone in leadership that transforms leadership from an individual property into a leaderful practice.
• Each member provides a unique contribution. In Raelin’s model managers are inherently collaborative.

Front 50

Leaderful Leadership

Back 50

Raelin, 2003

Hint 50

Four ‘Cs’ of leaderful leadership:
1. Concurrent, more than one leader at the same time, sharing power;
2. Collective, many people exercise leadership;
3. Collaborative, all members contribute to and support decisions made for the benefit of the group; and
4. Compassionate, managers are committed to the dignity of others, each member of the organization is valued.

The need for leaderful practice is based on the need for timely leadership. It needs to be exercised when and how the situation requires, not when the ‘leader’ is available.

Front 51

Leaderful Leadership

Back 51

Raelin, 2003

Hint 51

Four principles of Leaderful leadership:
1. Be sure that leaderful individuals and communities have the necessary resources (financial and information) that will allow them to assume accountability for their empowered decision making
2. Add a learning component to prepare all involved to assume shared responsibility
3. Ensure that there is a commitment to allow leaderful behavior to proceed without taking back control at the first misstep
4. Be selective – leaderful practice should only be accorded to those ready to assume the responsibility

Front 52

Culture and Leadership

Back 52

House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta (2004)

Hint 52

Culture - Shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and are transmitted across generations.

Front 53

Culture and Leadership

Back 53

House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta (2004)

Hint 53

1. Power distance: expect power to be distributed equally
2. Uncertainty Avoidance: reliance on social norms, rules and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events.
3. Humane Orientation: encourages & rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring and kind to others.
4. Collectivism I: integrated into groups within the society.
5. Collectivism II: strong ties to their small immediate groups
6. Assertiveness: dominant & demanding in their relationships with others.
7. Gender Egalitarianism: minimizes gender inequality.
8. Future Orientation: extent to which a collective encourages & rewards future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning & investing in future.
9. Performance Orientation: encourages & rewards group members for performance improvement & excellence.

Front 54

Complex responsive processes of relating

Back 54

Stacey, 2003

Hint 54

• Defined - human interaction in organizations, where organizations are patterns of communicative interaction between interdependent individuals.
• chaos theory is concerned with the properties of iterative, deterministic, nonlinear mathematical relationships in which the output of one iteration becomes the input of the next.
• human interactions cannot be predicted or determined, which means chaos theory cannot explain organizational dynamics.
• This perspective focuses on the interactions and power relating between individuals, without the presumption of control advocated in chaos theory.
• Prediction is done by understanding how individuals relate and execute power during interactions with others.