Digestive System And Metabolism

Front 1

VIP (vasoactive intestinal peptide)

Back 1

made in the small intestine
released when chyme/fat enters pH change or stretch in the stomach
vasodialation stims HCO3 mucous making (alkaline)

Front 2

Gastrin

Back 2

made in the stomach
released bc of stretch or pH Change
stim enzyme release, relaxes sphincters, mass movement, contraction of stomach and small intestines

Front 3

GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide)

Back 3

made in the small intestine
released bc fat/chyme in small intestine, stomach stretch, pH change

Front 4

CCK (Cholecystokin)

Back 4

made in the small intestines
released bc fat/chyme in the small intestines , stomach stretch, pH change
inhibits stomach, stim pancreas enzymes, relaxes sphincters

Front 5

Secretin

Back 5

made in the small intestine
released bc chyme/fat in small intestine, stretch of the stomach, pH change
inhibits secretions of the stomach, stim bile production, stim HCO3 secretion in the pancreas

Front 6

Brush-border sucrase

Back 6

breaks down sucrose to (fructose and glucose)
found in the small intestine

Front 7

Brush-Border maltase

Back 7

breaks down maltose into 2 glucoses
found in the small intestine

Front 8

Brush-Border lactose

Back 8

breaks down lactose into glucose and glactose
found in the small intestine

Front 9

Pancreatic lipase

Back 9

made in the pancreas
CCK stims this release
breaks down lipids

Front 10

Pepsin

Back 10

in the stomach
released inactively as pepsinogen (activated by HCl)
breaks down peptides/protiens

Front 11

Salivary Amaylase

Back 11

found in the mouth from the salivary glands
released in reaction to startch in the mouth breaks it down

Front 12

Pancreatic Amylase

Back 12

made in the pancreas
CCK stims this release
breaks down starches in the small intestines

Front 13

Trypsin

Back 13

released inactive as Trypsinogen
activates chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase
made in the pancreas
breaks down protien chains

Front 14

Chymotrypsin

Back 14

inactive form chymotrypsinogen
made in the pancreas
breaks down protiens cuts the chain where ever

Front 15

Carboxypeptidase

Back 15

procarboxypeptidase inactive form
made in the pancreas
breaks down protiens by starting with the acid side breaks of one aminoacid at a time

Front 16

Enterokinase

Back 16

found in the lining of the small intestine
activates Trypsinogen into Trypsin

Front 17

intestinal Lipase

Back 17

brush-border enzyme in the small intestine
breaks down fats into fatty acids and gylcerol

Front 18

metabolism

Back 18

sum of all the chemical processes occurring in the body

Front 19

anabolism

Back 19

reactions in which larger molecules manufactured from smaller ones
require energy (ATP) input

Front 20

catabolism

Back 20

reactions in which larger molecules are broken into smaller ones

Front 21

Trigylcerides break into?

Back 21

3 fatty acids and a gylcerol

Front 22

GLycogen breaks into?

Back 22

glucose

Front 23

Protiens breaks into ??

Back 23

aminoacids

Front 24

Aminoacids break into?

Back 24

amine group and keto acid

Front 25

Significance of nutrient pool and Kreb's/ TCA cycle

Back 25

Nutrient pool (small carbon chains) go into the Kreb's cycle generating 36 ATP and CO2 waste and co-enzmyes which enter the electron transport chain to yield crap loads of ATP and H2O (bc H is the final acceptor)

Front 26

chemical formula for glucose oxidation

Back 26

C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Front 27

glycolysis

Back 27

Breakdown of glucose to produce ATP

Front 28

gluconeogenesis

Back 28

Synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors
only in the liver!!!

Front 29

glycogenesis

Back 29

Formation of glycogen

Front 30

Glycogenolysis

Back 30

Breakdown of glycogen

Front 31

Role of the liver in metabolism

Back 31

Carbohydrate metabolism
Stores glucose as glycogen (long, branching chains of glucose) by glycogenesis
breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis) to release glucose to maintain blood glucose levels
Gluconeogenesis

Front 32

lypolisis

Back 32

trygylcerides(lipids) are broken into 3 fatty acid chains and one gylcerol

Front 33

Beta-oxidation

Back 33

Fatty acid molecules broken into Acetyl CO-A (2 carbon molecules)
generate alot of ATP but very slowly

Front 34

Ketogenesis

Back 34

occurs in the liver
2 acetyl-CoA -> acetoacetic acid -> ketones i.e.beta-hydroxybutyric acid or acetone

Front 35

mesentery proper

Back 35

around the small intestines anchors the organs to the back of the abdominal cavity for bd vessels nutrients and nerves

Front 36

lesser omentum

Back 36

mesentery
superior to the stomach run inferior of the liver
connects the vessels into the hepatic portal system

Front 37

greater omentum

Back 37

inferior of the stomnach down anterior of he cavity back up connects to the transverse colon

Front 38

peritoneal ligaments

Back 38

small mesentery falciform connects liver to the diaphragm

Front 39

Peritoneum

Back 39

intraperiptneal cavity -> visceral layer surrounds the organ and the cavity
retroperiotneal --> organ in the cavity is surrounded by/behind 2 layers less protection more seclusion this is a mesentery

Front 40

mixing

Back 40

rythmic contractio of the tube's circular muscles alternately in the stomach and small intestine

Front 41

propelling

Back 41

peristaltis -> ring of contraction (proximal pinch) longitudinal contraction (squish food distally)

Front 42

the 6 sphincters

Back 42

hypopharyngeal (btwn pharynx and esophagous)
gastro-esophageal (btwn esophagous and stomach (around T11))
pyloric sphincter (stomach to the small intestine)
illeo-cecal valve ( btwn illeum and cecum )
internal anal sphincter (smooth muslce)
exturnal anal sphincter (skelatal muscle)

Front 43

Small intestine

Back 43

90% of digestion

Front 44

Plicae circulares

Back 44

circular folds mucousal and submusousal layers
greater surface area causes chyme to move in a circular motion

Front 45

goblet cells

Back 45

found in the gastric pits and the small intestine folds secretes a protective mucous in both places

Front 46

Enteroendocrine cells

Back 46

also secretes mucous in the small intestine

Front 47

intestinal glands/ cyrpts

Back 47

Secrete intestinal juice mucous,bicarbonate, water, electrolytes for absorbing

Paneth cells secrete lysozyme

Duodenum glands secretes even more cells

Front 48

Migrating myoelectric complex (MMC)

Back 48

Move only a couple of inches to slow down the movement of chyme
Weak peristalsis in comparison to the stomach
chyme remains for 3 to 5 hours
Moves undigested chyme to large intestine

Front 49

segmentation

Back 49

local mixing of chyme with intestinal juices---sloshing back & forth
Mechanical digestion
Force can be altered by hormones, enteric, ANS bc it is always going on

Front 50

enteric reflex

Back 50

Distension (stretch) of duodenum initiates segmentation

Front 51

gastroileal reflex

Back 51

increased stomach activity intiates this reflex
long reflex involving brain and parasympathetic innervation (enhances force of segmentation in ileum) relaxes the valve

Front 52

mechanical digestion (in the small intestine)

Back 52

bile salts secreted by liver (stored in and released from gall bladder) emulsify fat globules (make them into smaller droplets) to increase surface area lipases have available to work on (emulsifiacation and segmentation)

Front 53

chemical digestion (in the large intestine)

Back 53

hydrolysis of macromolecules (break down using water and enzymes)
lipid digestion  ??
protein digestion  aminoacids
carbohydrate digestion  glucose,fructose, galatose
nucleic acid digestion  sugar + phospahte + nitrogen base

Front 54

Carbohydrate digestion

Back 54

almost all in the small intestine (pancreatic amylase and brushborder enzymes) a little bit in the mouth (salivary amylase)

Front 55

Aminopeptidase

Back 55

brush border enzyme starts at the amine free side and breaks amine groups off of aminoacids/protiens

Front 56

dipeptidase

Back 56

does the same as aminopeptidase but only work on dipeptide chains

Front 57

Peyer's Patch

Back 57

Concentration of lymph tissue

Front 58

Small intestine blood supply

Back 58

superior meseteric artery, to superior mesenteric vien to hepatic portal vien

Front 59

Small intestine nerve supply

Back 59

splenic and vagus nerves

Front 60

ribonuclease

Back 60

digests RNA broken down into nucleotides

Front 61

deoxyribonuclease

Back 61

digests DNA broken down into nucleotides

Front 62

nucleosidease and phosphatase

Back 62

breaks down nucleotides
The above give you pentose sugar, phosphate & nitrogenous bases
this is a brush border enzyme

Front 63

fat digestion

Back 63

start with trigylcerides
pancreatic lipase/bb lipase break it down into 3 fatty acids and gylcerol
emulsified by bile salts in the small intestine (this makes the micelles which are then broken down by the above)

Front 64

Regular absorption

Back 64

Monosaccharides,AA, dipeptides and tripeptides, glycerol
absorbed via active transport into the blood/capillaries

Front 65

Absorption via lacteals

Back 65

Fatty acids, monogylcerides, and cholesterol
lacteals --> thoracic duct --> subclavian vein

Front 66

extrinsic salavary glands

Back 66

are not embedded in tissue

Front 67

paratiod gland

Back 67

(infront of your ear secretes into top portion of the mouth) infection of this gland gives you the mumps

Front 68

sublingual gland

Back 68

secretes on the the floor of your mouth

Front 69

submandibulare gland

Back 69

secrete into the back of the mouth

Front 70

buccal glands

Back 70

secrete a tiny bit of mucous into your mouth) not a real issue

Front 71

Composition of salivary glands

Back 71

2 types of cells :
serous cells make enzymes
mucous cells make mucous
combine the two to get saliva

Front 72

Composition of saliva

Back 72

99 % water
HCO3 bicarbonate ion maintains 7.0 pH
salivary amalyase, IgA (antibody), electrolytes, metabolic waste

Front 73

Controling nerves of the salivary glands

Back 73

parasympathetic control via the facial nerve if sympathetic nerves are inervated then your mouth becomes dry

Front 74

buccal phase of degultanation

Back 74

1.food chewed (mastication) and mixed with saliva
2.tongue roles food into bolus and pushes back into pharynx
3.tongue presses against soft palate sealing the oral cavity
4.soft palate pushed up by bolus

Front 75

phryngeal phase of degultanation

Back 75

1.bolus triggers nerves (CN V AND IX) medulla
2.hyoid and larynx elevated so epiglottis covers top of larynx
3.Soft palate raises

Front 76

Esophegeal phase of degultanation

Back 76

1.muscles in pharynx relax to open an open the upper esophageal sphincter
2.peristaltic wave begins to force food down esophagus
3.when wave hits stomach lower esophageal sphincter relaxes and opens to let food in

Front 77

chemical digestion of the stomach

Back 77

acid (HCl) is produced at a pH of 2 which activates pepsin
pepsin (hydrolises protien) and renin (not responsible)

Front 78

neural control of the stomach/digestion

Back 78

parasympathetic(vagus nerve) increases contractions and secretions
sympathetic(splenic nerve) decreases contractions and secretions

Front 79

Cephalic phase of digestion

Back 79

All reflexes
Thought, taste, smell stimulates secretions
Stimulation from brain to stomach via vagus
To decrease this bc upset working out, etc you get a signal down the splenic nerve (or your vagual tone is decreased)
Stimulation is on the interic plexus  submucosal plexus

Front 80

Gastric phase of digestion

Back 80

Stretch receptors  stretch from food stimulates contraction and enzyme release more you eat the fast you will digest
Caffine, histamines increase secretions
Chemoreceptors: raise the pH so the body secretes more
This all causes the release of gastrin

Inhibition:
pH lower then 2

Front 81

intestinal phase of digestion

Back 81

a.k.a. inhibitory phase
Chyme enters intestines with pH of 2
Stretch of the small intestines
both stim intestine to release hormones
Short reflexes (enterogastic reflex)
stretch here inhibits stomach  on the enteric system
Long reflex
inhibition from brain of vagual tone

Front 82

Emesis/vomiting

Back 82

Usually caused by extreme stretching of stomach or small intestine or presence of irritants in stomach (e.g., bacterial toxins, excessive alcohol, spicy foods, certain drugs)
emetic center initiates impulses to
contract abdominal muscles (increases intra-abdominal pressure)
relax cardiac sphincter
raise soft palate (closes off nasal passages)
excessive vomiting results in dehydration (electrolyte blance off) and alkalosis

Front 83

Carbohydrate Absorption

Back 83

>Absorption into epithelial cell
>glucose & galactose----helped by sodium symporter(active transport) from the intestinal juice
>fructose on its own facilitated diffusion
>Movement out of epithelial cell into bloodstream
by facilitated diffusion

Front 84

Absorption of AminoAcids

Back 84

>Absorption into epithelial cell active transport with Na+ or H+ ions (symporters)
>Movement out of epithelial cell into blood Facilitated diffusion
>Large protein molecule absorption accounts for passive immunity and food allergies

Front 85

fat absorption

Back 85

Fats diffuse straight into the cells
FA and monogylcerides united in the smooth ER to my trigylcerides
Golgi apparatus packages with protien ^ and cholesterol  Chylomicron
Dumped into the lacteal

Front 86

electrolyte and vitamin absorption

Back 86

Ca, Fe, and B12 are the only ones that are regulated and not absorbed by a diffusion based system
Hormone calcitriol made from Vitamin D used for Ca reg
Ferritin a protien in order to ferry the iron
Intrinsic factor is used to take in B12

Front 87

Pancreatic islets

Back 87

produce insulin and glucagon

Front 88

Acinar cells

Back 88

in the pancreas create enzymes upon stimulation of CCK

Front 89

Travels of the pancreatic juice

Back 89

Stuff into pancreatic juice > pancreatic duct >common bile duct >hepatopancreatic ampulla > opens into intestine onto the duodenal papilla

Front 90

Pancreatic Juice

Back 90

Pancreatic amylase,
Pancreatic lipase,
Pancreatic nuclease
water
salts
HCO3 ions

Front 91

Regulation Nervous and Hormonal

Back 91

Vagus nerve parasympathetic nerve stims release of juices
CCK bc of fats efftects acinar cells
Secretin bc of pH effects HCO3
GIP bc FA and glucose insulin release

Front 92

Liver function

Back 92

CHO metabolism to help maintain blood glucose levels
Lipid metabolism: synthesize, lipids and cholesterol
Converting CHO and Protein to fat
Protein metabolism
Deamination of protein
Forming urea
Synthesizing clotting factors

Storage glycogen, iron, vitamin A, D, B12
Destroy damage red blood cell
Detoxification
Secretes bile

Front 93

blood supply to the liver

Back 93

Hepatic portal vein
nutrient rich blood from stomach, spleen & intestines
Hepatic artery from branch off the aorta
Both drop into capillary know as liver sinusoid
After sinusoid goes to central vein (still in the liver) then into hepatic vein
Then into inferior vein cava
30% of blood comes in the hepatic artery

Front 94

Microscopic liver

Back 94

Hepatocytes – actually doing the functions
Lobes are broken up into smaller portions called lobules
Lobules consist of 6 portal triads and one central vein
Bile formed in these cells then put in bile caniculi (run the oppostie direction to outside of the lobule)
Out side of the lobule is bile duct all bile caniculis dump here

Front 95

Bile ducts

Back 95

Bile ducts merge until you have a right and left hepatic duct
These merge to form the common hepatic duct leaving the liver  merges with the cystic duct from gallbladder (form the common bile duct)
Common bile duct merges with common pancreatic duct to form ampulla (opens into the intestines) controlled by sphincter bile backs up into the gallbladder (Storage)

Front 96

Bile!!

Back 96

Yellowish, brownish or olive-green liquid
Water, bile salts, bile pigment, cholesterol, electrolytes
pH 7.6-8.6
Produced by the liver
Stimulated by bile salts returning via hepatic portal blood
Stimulated by secretin (hormone secreted by small intestine in response to fats in chyme)
Bile salts stimulate liver to make more bile (positive feeback)
Bile’s high pH acts as a bicarbonate buffer from the stomachs low pH

Front 97

contents of bile/bile salts

Back 97

Cholesterol derivatives
Function:
Emulsification
Enhance absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, Vitamin A,D,E,K

Recycled via enterohepatic circulation
If insufficient bile salts or excessive cholesterol results in gallstones

Front 98

contents of bile/bile pigments

Back 98

Waste product of RBC
Conjugated bilirubin
Some absorbed by blood
Some stay intestine
Urobilinogen (stercobilin)

Front 99

insulin

Back 99

decreases blood sugar
supports glycolysis, and glucogenisis
decreases lypolysis

Front 100

HGH

Back 100

human growth hormone
supports Glycogenolysis and glyconeogenisis
increase lypolysis

Front 101

Cortisol

Back 101

supports raising blood sugar levels
Glycogenolysis and glyconeogenisis
increases lypolysis

Front 102

Epinephrine

Back 102

increases lypolysis
supports Glycogenolysis and glyconeogenisis to help raise blood sugar levels in your blood

Front 103

glucagon

Back 103

suports Glycogenolysis and glyconeogenisis
increases lypolysis
raises blood sugar levels

Front 104

Anaerobic Respiration

Back 104

if no mitochandrian or O2 present then pyruvic acid will be turned into lactic acid

Front 105

Kreb's Cycle Plus Electron Transport chain

Back 105

C6H1206 + 6 02  6 CO2 + 6H20 + 36 ATP

Front 106

Thyroxin

Back 106

supports lypolysis
means gluconeogenisis, break down of glucagon (Glycogenolysis)

Front 107

chylomicron

Back 107

composed mostly of exogenous trigylcerides made in the small intestine wall
shipped to the lacteals goes out to fat cells liver cells (low density very little protien)

Front 108

VLDL

Back 108

mostly trigylceride formed in the liver go from the liver to adiposecytes

Front 109

LDL

Back 109

mostly cholesterol made in the liver liver to any body cells
too many gives you authorosclerosis
these products are used to make cell wall and hormones
if no cholesterol is needed then it creates plaques (build up in the smooth muscle tissue)

Front 110

HDL

Back 110

cholesterol from cells back to the liver very high density better for you cause your liver can get ride of the fat/cholesterol

Front 111

Ratio of Cholesterols

Back 111

TC < 200mg
LDL <130 mg
HDL > 40 mg
Tryglycerides 10-190

TC/HDL = risk factor 4+ is bad

Front 112

Liver role in metabolism

Back 112

Fat metabolism
Packages fatty acids into forms that can be stored or transported
Stores fat
Forms lipoproteins for transport of fats, fatty acids and cholesterol to and from other tissues
Synthesizes cholesterol (from which it can synthesize bile salts)

Front 113

The Postabsorptive state (maintain glucose levels)

Back 113

From the end of the absorptive state to the next meal
Body relies on reserves for energy
Liver cells break down glycogen, releasing glucose into blood
Liver cells synthesize glucose (gluconeogenesis)
Lipolysis increases and fatty acids released into blood stream
Fatty acids undergo beta oxidation and enter Kreb’s cycle
Amino acids either converted to pyruvate or acetyl-CoA
Skeletal muscles metabolize ketone bodies and fatty acids
Skeletal muscle glycogen reserves broken down to lactic acid
Neural tissue continues to be supplied with glucose
Use anything to replace glucose oxidation

Front 114

THe absorptive state

Back 114

The period following a meal
Nutrients enter the blood as intestinal absorption proceeds
Liver closely regulates glucose content of blood
Adipocytes remove fatty acids and glycerol from bloodstream and storing TG
Glucose molecule are oxidized for ATP
Amino acids are used to build proteins