Developmental Test 1

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development

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age-related changes that are orderly, cumulative, and directional

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Qualitative change

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a developmental change involving a fundamental transformation in an ability or characteristic

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Quantitative change

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a developmental change involving an increase in the amount of an existing ability or characteristic

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Behavioral recognition

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A change in the way a developing child organizes and uses his or her capabilities; one way in which qualitative change occurs

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Normative development

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the general changes and reorganizations in behavior that virtually all children share as they grow older

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Individual development

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1. individual variations around the normative course of development 2. continuity within a child's developmental pathway

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adaptation

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a change in a species that increases chances of survival in a particular environment

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natural selection

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the process by which traits that are well adapted to an environment are selected through reproduction and become increasingly common in a species

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evolution

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the development of species through structural changes over time

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maturation

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age-related physical changes guided by a genetic plan

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theory

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an organized set or ideas about how things operate, an attempt to explain past findings and predict future ones

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sensorimotor period

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Piaget's term for the first two years of life, when awareness of the world is limited to what can be known through sensory awareness and motor acts

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preoperational period

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Piaget's term for the period when children have mental representation but do not yet reason logically or systematically

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Concrete operational period

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Piaget's term for the period when children begin to use logical operations to reason about concrete objects

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Formal operational period

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Piaget's term for the period when children gain the ability to reason systematically about abstract issues and hypothetical problems

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Information-processing theory

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a theory that seeks to explain human thought processes by comparing them to the workings of a computer

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Sociocultural theory

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a theory that emphasizes the role of social interactions and specific cultural practices in the development of cognitive skills

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Private speech

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Audible speech that children direct to themselves in regulating their own behavior

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Inner speech

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Children's inaudible directives to themselves, used for behavior regulation

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Zone of proximal development

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Vygotskys's term for the gap between a particular child's current performance and potential performance with guidance from someone more skilled

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Psychoanalytic theory

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any theory of development derived from the ideas of Freud

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Id

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Freud's term for the part of the mind that consists of primitive drives and instincts

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Ego

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Freud's term for the self; the part of the mind whose major role is to find safe and appropriate ways to express instinctual drives

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Superego

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Freud's term for the conscience; the part of the mind that has internalized rules and values governing behavior

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Fixation

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Failure to resolve that major issues of a psychosexual stage, resulting in repeated symbolic reliving of those issues

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Social learning theory

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a theory that emphasizes the learning of behaviors through associations with different kinds of consequences, especially in a social context

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Modeling

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Learning by imitating others' behavior, especially behavior that has been observed to have positive consequences

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Adaptational theory

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Bowlby's developmental theory, which integrates ideas from evolutionary, psychoanalytic, and cognitive theories to explain the development and impact of early attachment relationships

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Hypothesis

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a testable proposition, often developed to check the validity of a theory

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Experiment

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a study in which researchers control conditions and systematically manipulate one or more factors so as to rule out all influences except the one(s) being investigated

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ecological validity

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the degree to which experimental findings in the laboratory generalize to the outside world

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nonexperimental methods

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research methods in which information about behavior is collected without manipulating the factors thought to be influencing it

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correlational methods

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research methods that allow researchers to examine relationships among factors but not to draw conclusions about causes and effects

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natural experiment

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an observational method in which researchers compare groups of people who differ naturally on the factors being studied

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naturalistic observation

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a research method in which naturally occuring behavior is observed in everyday settings

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ethology

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a field of study relying on observation of species in their natural habitats, in order to understand patterns of behavior and their functions

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survey research

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research in which information is collected using interviews or questionnaires

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longitudinal study

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a study following a group of subjects over a period of time

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cross-sectional study

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a study comparing groups of people of different ages at the same time

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cohort effects

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in a cross-sectional study, a difference between age groups due to a peculiarity in one of the groups being studied rather than to a general developmental difference

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subject attrition

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in a longitudinal study, the loss of a participants over time

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accelerated longitudinal design

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a type of longitudinal study in which researchers simultaneously follow several age groups over a period of time

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canalization

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the extent to which genes constrain environmental influences on particular traits

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bidirectional effects

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two-way developmental influences between family members

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transactional model

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Sameroff's model describing the cumulative effects of ongoing two-way influences between children and parents

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family day care

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a day care setting in which a group of children are cared for in the home of a nonrelative

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Socioeconomic status (SES)

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the grouping of people within a society on the basis of income, occupation, and education

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culture

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a system of beliefs, attitudes, values. and guidelines for behavior shared by a group of people

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socialization

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the process by which children acquire the rules, standards, and values of a culture

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subcultures

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groups whose beliefs, attitudes, values, and guidelines for behavior differ in some ways from those of the dominant culture

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prenatal period

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the period of development prior to birth

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differentiation

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a developmental process in which structures and functions become increasingly specialized

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chromosome

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threadlike structures in which the organism's genetic instructions are stored, composed of DNA and located in the nucleus of each cell

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gene

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a segment of DNA that contains the code for producing a particular protein

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genome

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the complete DNA sequence for an organism

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somatic cells

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the cells that make up the body, not including egg and sperm cells

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mitosis

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the process of cell division by which the body grows and repairs itself, in which the genetic material from the parent cell is duplicated in each daughter cell

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homologues

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two chromosomes that from one of the twenty-three pairs of human chromosomes and resemble each other in size, shape, and the types of genes they carry

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meiosis

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the process of cell division by which egg and sperm cells are formed

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germ cells

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the cells from which eggs and sperm are produced

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gamete

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a mature reproductive cell (egg or sperm)

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crossing over

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an exchange of corresponding segments of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis

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random assortment

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the shuffling of chromosomes from the mother and the father that occurs doing meiosis when homologues separate in preparation for cell division

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sex chromosome

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in humans, the twenty-third pair of chromosomes, which determine genetic gender. females have two X chromosomes, males have one X and one Y chromosome

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critical period

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a limited time during which some part of a developing organism is susceptible to influences that can bring about specific and permanent changes

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gonads

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the sex glands - the ovaries and testes

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hormone

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a chemical produced in the body that regulates physiological processes

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androgens

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male sex hormone

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allele

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one of several alternate forms of a particular gene

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homozygous

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carrying two identical alleles for a particular trait

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heterozygous

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carrying two different alleles for a particular trait

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genotype

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an individual's genetic make up

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phenotype

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an individual's observable traits

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sex-linked traits

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recessive genetic traits that are carried on the X chromosome and are commonly expressed only in males

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polygenic

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influenced by multiple gene pairs

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ovum

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an egg cell

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ovulation

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release of an ovum into one of the fallopian tubes, the passages that lead into the uterus

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zygote

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the cell resulting from the union of a sperm cell with an ovum

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dizygotic twins

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fraternal twins, the result of the fertilization of two ova by two different sperm

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monozygotic twins

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identical twins, the result of the division of a single fertilized egg into two separate units during its early cell division

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blastocyst

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the hollow, ball-like structure into which a zygote develops in the first week following conception

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embryoblast

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a group of cells at one end of the blastocyst that develops into the embryo

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trophoblast

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the cells in the blastocyst that form the basis of the embryo's life-support system

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embryo

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the term applied to the developing organism during weeks 3 thought 8 of prenatal development

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organogenesis

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the formation of organs and other major body structures

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placenta

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a mass of tissue that supplies oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and carries away waste products

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umbilical cords

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a cord containing blood vessels that connects the embryo with the placenta

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amniotic sac

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the fluid-filled sac that surrounds and protects the embryo and the fetus

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endoderm

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cells that develop into internal organs, such as the stomach, liver, and lungs

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mesoderm

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cells that become the muscles, skeleton, and blood

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ectoderm

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cells that from the central nervous system, sensory organs, and skin

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embryonic induction

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a chemical interaction between the cells of different tissues that triggers the developmental changes in the embryo

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cephalocaudal development

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the principle that development proceeds from the head downward

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proximodistal development

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the principle that development proceeds from the center of the body outward

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fetus

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the term applied to the developing organism during the weeks 9 through 38 of prenatal development

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neural tube

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a tube running from the head to the tail of the embryo, which will develop into the brain and spinal cord

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neurons

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nerve cells

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neurogenesis

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formation of neurons

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cerebral cortex

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the brain's thin, highly convoluted outer layer

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synapses

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connection between neurons

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trimesters

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three-month periods that correspond to changes in the mother's experience of pregnancy

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congenital (birth) defect

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any abnormality that is present at birth

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single-gene (Mendelian) disorder

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any disorder produced by inheritance of a single gene

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chromosomal abnormality

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any genetic defect that occurs when errors in meiosis produce sperm or egg cells with incorrect numbers of chromosomes or with damaged chromosomes

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sex chromosome abnormalities

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any type of chromosomal abnormality that occurs when a baby receives an abnormal number of sex chromosomes

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teratogen

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a substance in the environment that can cause physical malformations during prenatal development

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risk factors

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factors that increase the likelihood of negative developmental outcomes

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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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a constellation of problems found among babies born to heavy drinkers

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estrogen

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a female sex hormone

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ultrasound

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a technique that produces a computer image of a fetus by bouncing sound waves off of it

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amniocentesis

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withdrawal of amniotic fluid for the purpose of testing for chromosomal abnormalities

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chorionic villus sampling

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a technique for analyzing the fetus's genetic makeup using cells from the developing placenta

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apgar scale

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a scale for rating a baby's well being shortly after birth

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anoxia

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a disruption in the baby's oxygen supply during or just after birth

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premature

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referring to a baby born less than thirty-five weeks after conception

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low birth weight

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referring to a baby weighing less than 2500 grams at birth

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very low birth weight

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referring to a baby weighing less than 1600 grams at birth

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cesarean section

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delivery of a baby by surgical incision in the abdomen and uterus of the mother