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210 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Chapter 1: Assumptions of the Text - Growth throughout lifespan means?
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Growth occurs at every period of life, from conception through very old age
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Chapter 1: Assumptions of the Text - plasticity means?
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A capacity for adaptive reorganization at the neurological, psychological, and behavioral levels
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Chapter 1: Assumptions of the Text - continuity and change means?
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Individual lives show continuity and change as they progress through time
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Chapter 1: Assumptions of the Text - focus on the whole person means?
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We need to understand the whole person, because we function in an integrated manner
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Chapter 1: Assumptions of the Text - what is the importance of context?
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Behavior must be interpreted in the context of relevant settings and personal relationships
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Chapter 1: Assumptions of the Text - what is meant by individual contribution?
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People contribute actively to their development
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Chapter 1: The Psychosocial Approach - what is it?
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Interaction of biological, psychological and societal system
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Chapter 1: The Psychosocial Approach - what does the biological system include and what are its change factors?
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Includes all the processes needed for physical function; Typical change factors include
genetically guided maturation, environmental resources (nutrition/sunlight etc), environmental toxins, accidents and disease, and lifestyle – diet, exercise, sleep etc |
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Chapter 1: The Psychosocial Approach - what does the psychological system include and what are its change factors?
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Includes the mental processes central to a person’s ability to make meaning of experiences; Typical change factors include genetic information (related, eg to intellectual function), life experiences, self-direction/insight
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Chapter 1: The Psychosocial Approach - what does the societal system include and what are its change factors?
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Includes those processes through which a person becomes integrated into society; typical change factors include move from one CULTURE to another, entry into new roles, age-graded expectations, historical events, technological change
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Chapter 1: The Psychosocial Approach - what is resilience?
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The capacity to withstand stress or overcome adversity (e.g. poverty).
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Chapter 1: The Psychosocial Approach - what is life expectancy?
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A projection of the number of years one can expect to live
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Chapter 1: The Psychosocial Approach - What are the advantages to the Psychosocial Approach?
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Helps assess the influence of early experience on later life stages
Makes links across generations Offers a hopeful framework/orientation Locates development within a framework of significant relationships |
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - explain positivism
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Approaches the study of human behavior by seeking causal relationships among factors, with the goal of trying to predict outcomes
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - explain qualitative inquiry
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Approaches the study of human behavior by trying to understand the meanings, motives and beliefs that underlie a person’s experience
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - the steps to positive inquiry are?
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Observe; construct a theory; operationalize the theory; test the theory; evaluate results; review
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what are the elements of research design?
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Sampling and Research Methods
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what is sampling?
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A method for choosing participants who will be included in the study
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what is population?
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The large group to which the findings of the research apply
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what is generalizabilty?
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The relevance of the sample results to the larger population
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what are the types of sampling?
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Random; stratified; matched groups; volunteer samples; the qualitative approach
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - research methods are?
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Approaches to collecting data
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - explain the two types of observation.
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Naturalistic: careful observation of behavior in a setting
Participant: researcher actively engages in interactions in setting |
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what are the strengths and weaknesses of observation?
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A very direct account of behavior
Avoids the problems of self-report Provides an opportunity for texture, meaning and surprises Inter-rater/observer reliability and accuracy The presence of the observer |
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what are case studies?
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In-depth description of a single person, family, social group, or social setting
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - explain interviews
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Structured or unstructured; life history/recollection
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what are surveys?
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Questions in standard form; face to face/phone/mail etc
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what are tests capable of?
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Measure specific characteristics; can measure psychological constructs;
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what is reliability?
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The consistency of a test in measuring a construct
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what is validity?
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The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - experiments include...
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Includes the systematic manipulation of variables to examine effect on outcome
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Aspects of Experiments - what is the independent variable?
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The factor being manipulated
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Aspects of Experiments - what is the dependent variable?
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The factor in which we look for change
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Aspects of Experiments - what is the control?
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How well the experiment control for confounding variables (internal validity) - ensures that changes are the result of experimental manipulation
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Aspects of Experiments - what is realism?
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How well the data reflects real life (external/ecological validity)
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Aspects of Experiments - what is representativeness?
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How well the data generalizes
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Design for Studying Development - what is retrospective?
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?
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Design for Studying Development - what are cross-sectional studies?
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Compare different age groups/social backgrounds/ racial groups - measures group differences but says nothing about the pattern of change over time
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Design for Studying Development - what are longitudinal studies?
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Repeated observations of the person over time – can look at how characteristics in childhood can effect adult adjustment; can monitor changes within the individual; also look at changes in groups over time – eg a childless group vs parents – how do they turn out in mid-life – problems: drop out; loss of data; questions loosing importance; too much data; effect of participation in the study
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - Design for Studying Development - what are cohort sequential studies?
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Groups (cohorts) are selected because they are a certain number of years apart in age (eg 11, 14 and 17) – then compared until the 11 year olds are 17 (every 3 years) (see Fig 2.3 p. 33) – produces immediate cross- sectional data; eventual longitudinal data; and a comparison of children who are the same age in three different years (eg the difference between being 11/14/17 in 2000 – 2001) also the repeated measures is controlled – not too much participation
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Chapter 2: Means and Methods in Developmental Psychology - what are the Ethical Issues in Research?
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Principles of conduct that are founded on society’s moral code
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - what are developmental stages?
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A period of life that is characterized by a specific underlying organization
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - what are developmental tasks?
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Encountered at each stage, including age-graded expectations; sensitive periods and teachable moments
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - what is the psychosocial crisis?
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Reflects some discrepancy between the person’s development competencies ….. and the new societal pressure for more effective, integrated functioning
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - what is the radius of significant relationships?
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Age-related demands on individuals are communicated through their significant social relationships
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - describe coping behavior
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Cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - explain problem and emotional focused coping
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Problem focused - changing or managing demand
Emotional focused - managing pressure-associated emotions |
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - explain prime adaptive qualities
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Qualities that develop from the resolution of the crisis (hope; will; purpose)
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - what are core pathologies?
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A core difficulty that may develop as a result of the ineffective, or negatively balanced resolution of the crisis (withdrawal; compulsion; inhibition)
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - what is the central process?
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The way that the person takes in or makes sense of cultural expectations and adapts (mutuality; imitation; identification)
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Chapter 3: the Psychosocial Model - what are the assumptions underlying Erikson's Eight Stage model?
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1) Importance of external social and internal psychological factors
2) Cumulative nature of development 3) Stage specific crisises (e.g. trust vs. mistrust; autonomy vs. shame/doubt; initiative vs. guilt) 4) Crisis resolution relies on a successful interaction between person and environment 5) The longterm impact of unresolved crises 6) The epigenetic principle (a biological plan for growth) 7) The potential for self-resolution (the possibility of resolving past crises) |
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - Freud's Psychosocial Theory - what are the three domains of consciousness?
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Preconscious; conscious; unconscious
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - Freud's Psychosocial Theory - what comprises the structure of the personality?
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Id; ego; superego
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - Freud's Psychosocial Theory - what are the psychosexual stages?
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Pregenital (birth – 6: oral; anal; phallic); latency (6 – 12); genital (12 onwards)
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - Freud's Psychosocial Theory - list defense mechanisms
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Repression; denial; projection
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - list Freud's 4 implications for development
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Individual shaped by environment
Early experience critical The significance of the unconscious Recognition of the role of infantile sexuality |
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - Explain four links between Freud's theory and the psychosocial theory
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Both are stage theories
Erikson’s individual is more active Erikson’s theory incorporates the relational paradigm Erikson expanded beyond childhood |
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - explain cognition
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the process of organizing and making sense of the world
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - explain equilibrium
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a balance of organized structures, whether motor, sensory or cognitive
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vgotsky - what is adaptation?
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A process of gradually modifying existing schemes and operations in order to take account of changes and discrepancies between what is known and what is being expected
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - what is assimilation?
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The tendency to interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemes
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - what is accommodation?
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The tendency to modify familiar schemes in order to account for new dimensions of the object or event that are revealed through experience
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - What are Piaget's four stages?
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Sensorimotor intelligence: birth to 18 months
Preoperational: from language development to 5/6 Concrete operational: 6 – 11/12yrs; Formal operational: from adolescence into adulthood |
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - what are Piaget's links to development?
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Knowledge derived from action
Discrepancies provoke development Infants can problem solve Each age group thinks differently Concrete operational thinking allows systematic exploration Thinking about the social world requires the same process of exploration as concrete world |
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - explain Vgotsky's culture as mediator theory
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Includes what children are taught to think about, what is valued, what we pay attention to, what skills are encouraged, sources of information also technical tools influence the way people
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - explain movement from intermental to intramental
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High-level mental functions begin with external activity and are developed within the relationship with the caregiver
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - explain the zone of proximal development
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The distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - explain Vygotsky's links to development
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Mental structures of people raised in different cultures will be different; individual cognitive development can be promoted by interactions with others (zone of proximal development)
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Chapter 4: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky - explain Vygotsky's links to the psychosocial theory
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Development depends on either a psychosocial crisis, discrepancies or disequilibrium
Each theory describes a series of stages Piaget and Vygotsky focus on cognition Erikson focuses on identity and the self |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is the gene pool?
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All the genetic information that comes to us as members of the human species
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is ancestry?
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Characteristics transmitted though heredity
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - how much do individual difference account for?
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1% of all DNA
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - What is a gene?
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The fundamental physical unit of heredity
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what are chromosomes?
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(23) located in the nucleus of every cell; store and transmit genetic (23rd pair determines sex)
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what are alleles?
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the alternative state of a gene – can be homozygous or heterozygous
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is a genotype?
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genetic information about a trait (not necessarily expressed)
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is a phenotype?
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observed characteristic
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is cumulative relationship?
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when more than one pair of genes influences a trait
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is co-dominance?
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a pattern of inheritance in which both genes are expressed
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is dominance?
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when one allele’s characteristics are always observed
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is reaction range?
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a range of possible responses to environmental conditions, the limits of which are determined by the genotype
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - Nature vs. Nurture
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is a zygote?
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the cell produced when the sperm and egg unite and fertilization occurs
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what are monozygotic twins?
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result when a zygote divides in two and separates resulting in identical twins
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what are dizygotic twins?
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result when multiple ovulations and fertilizations occur
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - infertility and alternative means of reproduction
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• create ethical/legal questions
• potentially suggest ‘making’ rather than ‘having’ a baby – changes our perspective on pregnancy • has potential impact on family relationships and therefore psychosocial development |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what takes place during the germinal phase?
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• first 8 weeks
• zygote (first 12/14 days): after fertilization the egg begins to divide • embryo (next six weeks): following implantation – when the egg makes contact with the lining of the uterus • establishing the ‘support system’ – amniotic sac; hormonal changes; placenta • rapid cell differentiation • early formation of internal organs • beginnings of nervous system |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is a placenta?
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an ‘exchange station’ – receiving nutrients, acting as a filter, removing waste products
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what are teratogens?
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agents that can produce malformations in the fetus
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what happens during the fetal phase?
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• from around the tenth week after the last menstrual period until the end of pregnancy
• grows to around 3 inches • begins to move • assumes the fetal position • appears responsive to touch • sex organs differentiated |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what happens during the second trimester?
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• sucking and swallowing
• eye movements • responds to sound |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what is viability?
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by 24 weeks the fetus could survive outside the uterus – by 30 weeks survival almost certain
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what happens during the third trimester?
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• grows from 10 to 20 inches
• maturation of central nervous system • coordinated sucking and swallowing |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - name reasons that show the importance of fetal behavior
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• practice makes perfect
• forming joints and muscles • getting ready for the breast • attachment – eg, becoming familiar with the mother’s voice and smell • language acquisition and brain development |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what are the stages of labor?
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• Begins with the onset of uterine contractions, ends with the full dilation of the cervix
• Begins with full dilation and ends with the delivery of the baby • Begins with the delivery of the baby and ends with the expulsion of the placenta |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - What is an Apgar score?
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An evaluation of the newborn based on heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, response to stimulation and skin color -performed twice within the first five minutes of birth
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - what are some of the impacts a mother can have on the fetus?
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• poverty – poor nutrition; less prenatal care; less aware of risks; more hazardous living conditions
• mother’s age – 16-35: best ‘environment’; • maternal drug use – impact depends on susceptibility, timing, duration of exposure • environmental toxins – exposure to chemicals – both mother and father • mother’s diet – needs to provide adequate nutrition for the fetus |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - describe the first trimester from the mother's perspective
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• significant hormonal change
• symptoms – nausea; fatigue etc • potential miscarriage |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - describe the second trimester from the mother's perspective
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• “…the reality of the growing life becomes more evident…”
• ‘quickening’ – first awareness of baby moving • A developing bond with the child |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - describe the third trimester from the mother's perspective
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• Increasing size and ‘symptoms’
• Increasing dependence on partner • Anticipation, planning and some anxiety |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - describe two different birthing experiences
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• pregnancy and birth safer – but more ‘medicalized’ – caesarean; epidural; fetal monitoring; induction
• the natural childbirth alternative |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - describe the impact of the fetus on the mother
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• change of social role and status
• physical and emotional changes • change in relationship with partner |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - describe the role of the father
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• partnering in the physical events of pregnancy and delivery
• economic pressures • nature of the relationship • family history/expectations |
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Chapter 5: Pregnancy and Pre-Natal Dev. - describe the cultural context of pregnancy
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• solicitude versus shame
• adequacy versus vulnerability |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - name two things a newborn is checked for
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• Apgar score
• Small for gestational age |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe the first developmental task - Sensorimotor Intelligence and Motor Function
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• hearing - one of the earliest links with mother
• vision - fineness of discrimination, is limited for newborns, but improves rapidly within the first four months • faceness - the human face has a special appeal for infants; especially the “top-heavy” configuration and movement • taste and smell - newborns can distinguish sweet, sour, bitter and salty tastes • touch – important in attachment • Motor function – develops from reflexes, to more controlled reaching and grasping to a coordinated motor sequence |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe the second developmental task - Sensorimotor Intelligence and Causal Schemes
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• the development of complex, purposeful causal behaviors develops gradually during the first 2 years of life
• “…the chief mechanism governing the growth of intelligence in infancy is sensorimotor adaptation” (Piaget 1970 cited in N&N) |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe the third developmental task - the nature of objects
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Object Permanence - the concept that objects in the environment are permanent and do not cease to exist when they are out of reach or view
Categorization - A fundamental element of information processing |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - list the main causal themes
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• Reflexes
• First habits • Circular reactions • Coordination of means and end Experimentation with new means • Insight |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe temperament
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• “…the relatively stable characteristics of response to the environment and patterns of self-regulation” (p. 146)
• emerges from a combination of genetic, environmental and socially constructed factors • a primary feature – the child’s negative or positive reactions to environmental events • the stability of this reaction creates particular responses • classification: easy, slow, difficult • a further dimension: reactivity and self- regulation |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe developmental task 4 - attachment
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the process through which people develop specific, positive emotional bonds with others” (p. 148)
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what are the three elements of attachment?
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• synchronicity
• infant attachment behavioral system • parenting response |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what is the evidence of attachment?
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• effort to maintain contact
• distress in response to separation • relaxed and comfortable when ‘object’ present |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe the development of attachment
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• 0 – 3 months: sucking, rooting, smiling etc – not aimed at one person – but, learn the unique nature of the parental relationship
• 3 – 6 months: preferential responsiveness • 6 – 9 months: baby seeks proximity with object of attachment (helped by mobility) • 9 – 12 months: organization of an attachment scheme • Toddlerhood and later: goal-corrected partnership (Bowlby) |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe attachment and anxiety
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• Stranger anxiety (6months on) - the discomfort or tension in the presence of unfamiliar adults;
• Separation anxiety (around 9 months) – either increased attachment behavior or protest, despair, detachment (depending on duration) (Ainsworth et al 1978) |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what did Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test do?
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• stimulates the attachment situation and assesses the quality of attachment
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what are the 4 types of attachment?
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• Secure attachment
• Anxious-avoidant attachment • Anxious-resistant attachment • Disorganized attachment |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what factors contribute to attachment?
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• Parental sensitivity “…attentiveness to the infant’s state….” (p 154)
• Cultural and sub cultural differences - one’s mental representation of parenting • The caregiver’s story - the experience of being parented • Contemporary factors – health; support; personal characteristics • Infant characteristics – temperament |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what is the impact of attachment in later life?
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• Expectations of the nature of relationships
• Influences the formation of later relationships - friendship; intimate relationships; parenting relationships • Clinical Diagnosis - Reactive Attachment disorder – inhibited/uninhibited type |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - describe developmental task five - emotional development/differentiation
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• emotional differentiation
• emotions as a key to understanding meaning • the ability to regulate emotions • emotions as a channel for adult-infant communication |
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what is the psychosocial crisis during infancy?
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trust vs. mistrust
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what is the central process during this time period?
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• mutuality with caregiver - achieved through coordination (matching and synchronicity)
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Chapter 6: Infancy - explain the Prime Adaptive Ego Quality: Hope
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bestows on the anticipated future a sense of leeway inviting expectant leaps, either in preparatory imagination or in small initiating actions
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Chapter 6: Infancy - explain the core pathology: withdrawal
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a general orientation of wariness toward people and objects
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Chapter 6: Infancy - what is the role of the parents during infancy?
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safety in the physical environment; fostering emotional and cognitive development; parental behavior; parents as advocates; the importance of social support
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - describe developmental task 1: locomotion
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plays a central role in the toddler’s psychosocial development, facilitating the transforming of ideas into action and prompting new types of interactions with the social and physical environment
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - describe the development of locomotion
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• Maturation of the cerebral cortex
• Changes in body weight and muscle mass • New capacities to coordinate feedback from the limbs and judge the amount of effort needed to achieve a goal • (losing the diaper) |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - describe developmental task 2: language
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Children become adept at using all the aspects of language that permit participation in the language environment of their culture
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is semiotic thinking?
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understanding that one thing can stand for another – symbols and signs
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is the principle of relevance?
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Early language acquisition is influenced by an idiosyncratic functionality and family culture
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - describe the development of language in infancy
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Language perception • the infant’s capacity to recognize language sounds
Babbling • initially universal sounds – progressively environmental language related Communication by gesture • by 8 months - combining sounds with gestures later, showing (11 months), closely followed by giving and pointing Early grammar • e.g. word order – by 7 - 8 months, the ability to recognize grammatical regularities First words • receptive language (8 months); language production (12 months on) in the form of holophrases (a single word expression) |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - What is fast mapping?
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• Language perception • the infant’s capacity to recognize language sounds
• Babbling • initially universal sounds – progressively environmental language related • Communication by gesture • by 8 months - combining sounds with gestures later, showing (11 months), closely followed by giving and pointing • Early grammar • e.g. word order – by 7 - 8 months, the ability to recognize grammatical regularities • First words • receptive language (8 months); language production (12 months on) in the form of holophrases (a single word expression) |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is telegraphic speech?
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two word sentences “All gone” “Daddy home” – omitting words but conveying meaning
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what does it mean for an infant to overregularize?
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• the tendency to apply a grammatical rule for regular verbs or nouns in the transformation of an irregular verb or noun (by 4 years old) – demonstrates an understanding of grammar
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain what the term language environment means
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• Language strategies in interaction are culturally based (e.g. simplifying)
• The quality of the parent-child interaction influences the child’s overall intellectual competence |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is scaffolding?
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The process of language learning involves a pattern of mutual regulation and upward scaffolding” (p. 195) – through expansion and prompting
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is the importance of reading and language games at this age?
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enhance language, plus communicate the nature of the written word and storytelling
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is the significance about family discussions about feelings?
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predictive of the child’s later ability to discuss and manage feelings and empathize with others
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain the third developmental task of fantasy play
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Symbolic play is based on the ability to let one thing stand for another – and to have a mental representation of something when it is not present
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - describe the development of fantasy play
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• Move from sensorimotor play to symbolic play
• Can construct a purely pretend scenario – with rules, consequences, characters etc • Understand the difference between what is pretend and what is real • Understand when someone is pretending and join in with their game • Tell the difference between what an object really is and what someone is pretends it is |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - connect fantasy play and Piaget
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emphasizes the assimilative value of fantasy play
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - connect fantasy play and Erikson
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play is vital in promoting personality and social development
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - connect fantasy play and Vygotsky
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play creates a zone of proximal development – “in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself”
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - discuss the role of play companions
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• Play combinations can elaborate a child’s capacity for fantasy
• Social play encourages children to establish new channels for shared meaning • The importance of pretense and play depends on meaning it is given in the culture |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain the third developmental task: self control
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self-control is the ability to comply with a request, modify behavior according to the situation, initiate or postpone action, and behave in a socially acceptable way without having to be guided or directed by someone else
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is impulse management?
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Self-control and the management of delays in gratification improve with the development of cognitive, social and emotional competency
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - name some management strategies
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distraction, pretending, re-directing attention, self-soothing, seeking comfort from others
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is the role of empathy?
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impulse control increases with the development of empathy (an appreciation for the distress of others)
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - describe empathy and temperament during this age
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Empathy • Differential capacity to empathize (genetic and environmental element)
Temperament • Effortful control (less emotionally intense children display great effortful control) |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain the mother-infant relationship
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The quality of the mother-infant attachment (eg insecure attachment – associated with irritability, avoidance and resistance and aggressiveness)
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is self regulated goal attainment?
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the ability to direct our own behavior and the behavior of others to achieve intended outcomes
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - describe the development of self-regulation
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he growing definition of self-hood
• Freud’s concept of delayed gratification • Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy • the developing sense of agency – the child’s view of herself as the originator of an action |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain speech and goal attainment in relation to Piaget and Vygotsky
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Piaget • egocentric speech used to control and direct behavior
Vygotsky • the internalization of social speech in goal attainment - “slowly, be careful, hold tight |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain the psychosocial crisis of autonomy vs. shame and doubt
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Autonomy • the beginning of asserting control on behavior – the child asserting his or her independence or autonomy
Shame • “….shame supposes that one is completely exposed and conscious of being looked at…..(it) is early expressed in an impulse to bury one’s face, or to sink, right then and there, into the ground” (Erikson 252) |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - what is the central process during this age?
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Imitation –
• A vehicle for learning motivated by the by the drive for mastery and competence • “…. a means of participating in and sustaining social interactions and advancing social cognition” Newman and Newman, 2006, p 210 • A source of pleasure derived from the perception of similarity between the toddler and their model. |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain the Prime Adaptive Ego Quality: Will
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• “… the capacity of the mind to direct and control action”
• “… the inner voice, focusing attention, encouraging, and urging one on, especially in the face of obstacles” (p 211) • Closely linked to the achievement of self-control and self-directed goal attainment |
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Chapter 7: Toddlerhood - explain the core pathology: compulsion
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• Compulsions – “…repetitive behaviors that are motivated by impulse or by restrictions on the expression of it.” (p. 211)
• Obsessions – “… persistent, repetitive thoughts that serve as mechanisms for binding anxiety” |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - describe developmental task 1: gender identity
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-concepts do not have a reality independent of those who create them
- difference does not necessarily spring from our sex and therefore from our biology |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain the individual difference model and the constructivist model
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The individual difference model – based on biological differences
The constructivist model – gender differences are the result of agreed social definitions of male and female behavior |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain the understanding of the concept of gender
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Applying the correct gender label to self and others
Understanding that gender is stable Understanding gender constancy Understanding the genital basis of gender |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain gender role standards
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The child’s knowledge of gender roles shapes preferences and behavior
Roles become more established with age Girls are more flexible with gender rules. Children of non-traditional parents are also more flexible. |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain identification with parents
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Admiration for and imitation of parents
Same sex parental identification - important gender role information. Family environments are strongly gendered Gender standards are very strongly internalized. |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain gender preference and what influences it
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Gender preference: a personal preference for the kinds of activities and attitudes associated with masculine or feminine roles (may fluctuate throughout life
Influences: how closely your attributes and skills approximate the gender the role standard How much the child likes the same sex parent The perceived cultural value of each sex |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - discuss the components of early moral development
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Emotions: experiencing the range of positive and negative feelings associated with moral choices - recognizing these emotions in others
Knowledge: learning the moral code of the community Action: taking action to inhibit negative impulses; acting to care for or helping others |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - what is avoidance conditioning?
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the reinforcement of tension reduction that is linked to controlling wrongful impulses
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain social learning theory
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children develop mental models based on their observations of others
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain cognitive learning theory
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moral behavior is influenced by the specifics of the situation
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain Piaget's cognitive learning theory
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Heteronomous morality - rules are understood as fixed – follow specific laws
Autonomous morality - rules are a product of cooperative agreement |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain Kohlberg's stages in the development of moral judgement
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Level I: Preconventional (from 4 – 10)
Stage 1: behavior is rewarded or punished Stage 2: benefits for self or loved ones Level II: Conventional (10 – 18) Stage 3: approval of authority Stage 4: behavior upholds or violates the laws of society Level III: Postconventional (18 into adulthood) Stage 5: preserving social contracts - cooperative collaboration Stage 6: ethical principles that apply across time and cultures |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - what is equilibration?
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efforts to reconcile new perspectives and ideas about basic moral concepts with existing views about what is right or wrong.
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain Freud's psychoanalytic theory
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Morality – the ability of children to control their impulses and resist temptation, rather than an understanding of right and wrong.
The superego - the internalization of the parental voice The conflict of the phallic stage is resolved by identification with the same sex parent. |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - what is egocentric empathy?
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Recognizing the distress in others – and responding to it in the way you would if the distress were your own
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain perspective taking
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The cognitive capacity to consider a situation from another’s point of view
Achieved gradually, through parental inductions, peer interaction, social pretend play, conflict and role playing |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain Robert Selman's levels of perspective taking
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Level 1: (4 - 6 years old): recognize different emotions in the various actors – but assumed that all the actors viewed the situation as they did – by level 4: (10 - 12 years old) realized that two people could take each other’s perspective and also understand how people may have viewed the situation differently from the way they did.
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain the goals of parental discipline
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-help the child interrupt or inhibit the forbidden act
-point out a more acceptable behavior -provide some reason why the action is inappropriate -stimulate the child’s ability to empathize with the victim |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain self-concept
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An amalgam of who we think we are …values, priorities, attitudes, beliefs
links the child’s understanding of the nature of the world, the self, and the meaning of interactions between the two |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain the I and Me according to William James
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The ‘Me’: the self as known
– the objective self The ‘I’: the self as knower the sense of agency sense of uniqueness sense of continuity from moment to moment an awareness of one’s own awareness |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain the Me according to Damon & Hart
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Physical self – appearance and observable characteristics
Active self – behaviors and actions Social self – social bonds and social skills Psychological self – personality, emotions and thoughts |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain the I according to Damon & Hart
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Continuity – experiences that allow me to know that I am the same person form day to day.
Distinctiveness – experiences that illustrate how I differ from others – how I am unique Agency – experiences that allow me to believe that I have an impact, a causal agent |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain Damon & Hart's developmental changes in self theory
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Early childhood – categorical identifications e.g. I have blue eyes.
Middle childhood – comparative assessments e.g. I am bigger than everyone else in my class |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - what is theory of mind?
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The ability to appreciate that what you know or believe to be true is different from what others know and believe to be true is a salient feature of self-awareness
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - discuss self-esteem
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“The evaluative dimension of the self…” (N&N G-15)
Self- esteem is based on: Messages of love and support from others Specific attributes and competencies How one regards these competencies in relation to others and the ideal self |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain peer play
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Group games – a transitional form between the fantasy play of the toddler and team sports of middle childhood
Friendship Groups – opportunity to enhance interpersonal sensitivity, social reasoning, and conflict resolution skills |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - explain the psychosocial crisis of initiative vs. guilt
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Initiative: agency; the self as a causal agent; continues to find expression as children impose themselves and their ideas and questions onto their social world
Guilt: an emotion that accompanies that sense that one has been responsible for an unacceptable thought, fantasy, or action |
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - what is the central process of this age?
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children form an internal representation of the self that is coordinated with the representation of the other
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - what is the prime adaptive ego quality: purpose?
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Purposefulness is the courage playfully to imagine and energetically pursue valued goals
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Chapter 8: The School Age Child - describe the core pathology: inhibition
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refers to the restraint or suppression of behavior …. a conscious or unconscious blocking of unacceptable wishes and behaviors
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Developmental Task 1: Friendship
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Friendships may not be as essential to survival as attachment but they provide social and developmental advantages
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Influence of parents' style
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Early secure attachments
The mother’s style of interaction with her child Imitation of interpersonal style Sets up an expectation of the pattern of social interaction Highly restrictive parenting may limit opportunities for social interaction |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - friendship contribution to development
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An appreciation for multiple perspectives
A sensitivity to social norms and roles The experience of closeness of a same-sex peer |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - perspective taking skills contribute to...
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Ability to analyze social problems
Empathize with the emotional state of another Understand that others may see the situation differently Accept individual differences Are more positively evaluated and trusted by peers Form more friendships |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - lonliness
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With the opportunity and focus on friendship, there is the possibility of rejection and loneliness
categories of children most likely to experience loneliness Children who have been rejected by peers Children with low levels of social competency Of the rejected children – those who are withdrawn, victimized or bullied Children who blame themselves |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Developmental Task 2: Concrete Operations
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Concrete Operational Thought: a form of thinking in which rules of logic can be applied to observable “concrete” real materials
Operation: “…an action that is performed on an object or set of objects.” A mental operation: “…a transformation that is carried out in thought rather than in action.” |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - conceptual skills - conservation
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physical matter does not magically appear or disappear despite changes in form, shape or container
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - categorization
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the ability to identify properties of categories, to relate categories or classes to one another, and to use categorical information to solve problems
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Metacognition
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Includes the ability to review various strategies for approaching a problem
Includes the ability of the individual to review and respond to his own comprehension May be associated with psychological mindfulness Develops in parallel with other cognitive capacities Develops in a social context May be an important element of self-regulation |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Developmental Task 3: Skill Learning
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Skills are the basis of intellectual competence – they combine knowledge and practice
Reading skills are critical – they provide access to new information, new uses of language, and new forms of thinking |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - parents influence on reading
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The value they place on literacy
The emphasis they place on academic achievement The reading materials they make available at home The time they spend reading with their children The way they read with their children The opportunities they provide for verbal interaction in the home |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Developmental Task 4: Self-evaluation
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Children strive to match their achievements to internalized goals and external standards
The peer group joins the adult world as a source of social comparison, criticism, and approval |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Self-efficacy
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the person’s sense of confidence that he or she can perform the behaviors demanded in a particular situation
Four parts: past performance, watching others, being told by others, feeling nervous or confident |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Social Expectations
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Teacher’s expectations - the self-fulfilling prophecy – Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
Parent’s Expectations: expectations about their children’s capabilities influence children’s perceptions of their abilities |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - effect of gender expectations
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Child’s motivational and psychological characteristics
Child’s confidence in her ability Child’s interest and subjective task value Child’s affective associations and memories |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - Developmental Task 5: Team Play
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Interdependence - all the elements in a system rely on one another for their continued growth
Division of labor – and cooperation Competition - a context between rivals The experience of the in-group and out-group |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - The Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority
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The danger at this stage is in the development of a sense of inadequacy and inferiority if the child sees his skills and status as inadequate
Another fundamental danger is in the development of a restricted view of the self where work becomes either the only focus or the only option and only yardstick of self-worth |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - organ inferiority
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physical or mental limitations that prevent the acquisition of certain skills – also depends on the cultural/social value of the skills you have an aptitude for
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - social comparison
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children are group, tracked, graded, labeled – compare to the learning of the toddler in a much more value-free environment
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - learned helplessness
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helpless children tend to discount their success and highlight their failure – can ultimately lead to extreme withdrawal
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - the central process: education
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Every culture must devise ways of passing on the wisdom and skills of past generations to its young
Education is different from schooling |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - the Prime Adaptive Ego Quality: Competence
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Competence as an outcome measure – your effectiveness in a particular situation
Competence as a personality type – similar to resilience – used to describe children who can overcome stressful circumstance Competence as a motivational system – a tendency to strive toward higher and higher levels of mastery Competence as a composite of knowledge, skills and abilities – for successful adaptation Competence as a belief in one’s own effectiveness – a general belief in your ability to “get the job done” |
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Chapter 9: Middle Childhood - the core pathology: Inertia
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a paralysis of thought and action that prevents productive work
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