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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents
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Nature
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The environments, both physical and social, that influence our development
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Nurture
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The idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller
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Continuous Development
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The idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly
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Discontinuous Development
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Approaches that propose that development involves a series of discontinuous, age-related phases
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Stage Theories
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The development of thinking and reasoning
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Cognitive Development
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Differences in thought and behavior within and among individuals
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Variation
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The more frequent survival and reproduction of organisms that are well adapted to their environment
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Selection
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The physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child's environment
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Sociocultural Context
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Seven Fundamental Questions about Children?
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1) What is the relation between nature and nurture?
2) How do children contribute to their own development? 3) Is development best viewed as continuous or discontinuous? 4) What mechanisms produce development? 5) How does the sociocultural context influence development? 6) Why are children so different from one another? 7) How can we use research to improve children's welfare? |
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An approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion
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Scientific Method
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Educated guess
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Hypothesis
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The degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent
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Reliability
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The amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior
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Interrater Reliability
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The degree of similarity of a child's performance on two or more occasions
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Test-retest Reliability
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The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
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Validity
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the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the variables that the researcher intentionally manipulated
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Internal Validity
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the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research
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external validity
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a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions
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structured interview
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a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers that interviewee provides
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clinical interview
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examination of how children behave in their usual environments--schools, playgrounds, homes, and so on
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naturalistic observation
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a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior
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structured observation
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attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, gender, and expectations
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variables
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studies intended to indicate how variables are related to each other
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correlational designs
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the association between two variables
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correlation
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a statistic that indicates the direction and strength of a correlation
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correlation coefficient
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the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variables is the cause of the other
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direction-of-causation problem
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the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable
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third-variable problem
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a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn
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experimental designs
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a procedure in which each child has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment
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random assignment
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the ability of the researcher to determine the specific experiences that children have during the course of an experiment
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experimental control
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a group of children in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest
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experimental group
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the group of children in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest
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control group
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the experience that children in the experimental group receive that children in the control group do not receive
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independent variable
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a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable
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dependent variable
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a type of experimental design in which data are collected in everyday settings
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naturalistic experiments
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a research method in which children of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period of time
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cross-sectional design
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a method of study in which the same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time
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longitudinal design
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a method of study in which the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period of time
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microgenetic design
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Four Methods of Collecting Data?
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Interviews, Naturalistic Observation, Structured Observation, Laboratory Measures
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Advantages of Interviews?
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Reveal children's subjective experience; structured interviews are inexpensive and provide in-depth data about individuals; clinical interviews allow flexibility for following up unexpected comments
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Disadvantages of Interviews?
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Biased; memory of interviewee often inaccurate and incomplete; prediction of future behaviors often is inaccurate
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Advantages of Naturalistic Observation?
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Useful for describing behavior in everyday settings; helps illuminate social interaction processes
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Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation?
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difficult to know which aspects of situation are most influential; limited value for studying infrequent behaviors
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Advantages of Structured Observation?
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ensures that all children's behaviors are observed in same context; allows controlled comparison of children's behavior in different situations
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Disadvantages of Structured Observation?
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context is less natural than in naturalistic observation; reveals less about subjective experience than interviews
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the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father
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conception
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a fertilized egg cell
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zygote
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the name given to the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development
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embryo
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the name given to the developing organism from the 9th week of birth
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fetus
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genetically programmed cell death
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apoptosis
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a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but as semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from other to fetus and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to mother)
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placenta
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a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta
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umbilical cord
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a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus
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amniotic sac
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fetal experience: sight?
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negligible
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fetal experience: touch?
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experience tactile stimulation as a result of its own activity; grasping their umbilical cords; rubbing their faces; sucking their thumbs
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fetal experience: taste?
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amniotic fluid that the fetus swallows contains a variety of flavors; likes some better than others; has a sweet tooth; taste preferences
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fetal experience: smell?
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amniotic fluid also takes on odors from what the mother has eaten
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fetal experience: hearing?
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prenatal environment includes many sounds generated internally by the mother--her heartbeat, blood pumping, breathing, swallowing, digestive system, voice...
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Fetal Learning?
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the fetus learns from many of its experiences in the last 3 months of pregnancy, after the central nervous system is adequately developed to support this learning
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a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation
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habituation
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external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development
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teratogen
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the period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors; prenatally, the sensitive period is when the fetus is maximally sensitive to the harmful effects of teratogens
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sensitive period
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a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be
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dose-response relation
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the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause
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SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)
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Processes of Prenatal Development?
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Cell Division, Cell Migration, Cell Differentiation, and Cell Death (Apoptosis)
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a soothing technique, used in many cultures, that involves wrapping a baby tightly in cloths or a blanket
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swaddling
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any child born at 35 weeks after conception or earlier (as opposed to the normal term of 38 weeks)
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premature
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How are genes, chromosomes, and DNA related to each other?
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Everyone starts out as a single cell; chromosomes are located in nucleus of every cell; DNA is contained within the chromosomes; genes are segments of DNA in chromosomes
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Zygote occur?
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Stage 1 -- Weeks 1-2
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Gastrulation?
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Zygote becomes embryo; process of cell differentiation; ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
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Embryo occur?
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Stage 2 -- Weeks 3-8
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Fetus occur?
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Stage 3 -- Weeks 9-40
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the genetic material an individual inherits
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genotype
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the observable expression of the genotype, including both body characteristics and behavior
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phenotype
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every aspect of an individual and his or her surroundings other than genes
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environment
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molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information; made up of DNA
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chromosomes
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molecules that carry al the biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism
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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
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sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things
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genes
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Four relations that are involved in the development of every child?
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1) the parents' genetic contribution to the child's genotype
2) the contribution of the child's genotype to his/her own phenotype 3) the contribution of the child's phenotype on his or her environment 4) the influence of the child's phenotype on his/her environment |
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the chromosomes (X and Y) that determine an individual's gender
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sex chromosomes
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a change in a section of DNA
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mutation
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having two of the same allele for a trait
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homozygous
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having two different alleles for a trait
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heterozygous
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inheritance in which traits are governed by more than one gene
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polygenic inheritance
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all the phenotypes that can theoretically result from a given genotype in relation to all the environments in which it can survive and develop
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norm of reaction
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a statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals
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heritability
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the tendency to respond to the demands of the environment in ways that meet one's goals
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adaptation
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the tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowlege
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organization
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the process by which people translate incoming information into a form that they can understand
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assimilation
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the process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences
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accommodation
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the process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding
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equilibration
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the period (birth to 2 years) within Piaget's theory in which intelligence is expressed through sensory and motor abilities
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sensorimotor stage
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the period (2 to 7 years) within Piaget's theory in which children become able to represent their experiences in language, mental imagery, and symbolic thought
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preoperational stage
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the period (7 to 12 years) within Piaget's theory in which children become able to reason logically about concrete objects and events
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concrete operational stage
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the period (12 years and beyond) within Piaget's theory in which people become able to think about abstractions and hypothetical situations
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formal operational stage
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the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view
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object permanence
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the tendency to reach where objects have been found before, rather than where they were last hidden
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A-Not-B error
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the repetition of other people
s behavior a substantial time after it originally occurred |
deferred imitation
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the use of one object to stand for another
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symbolic representation
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the tendency to perceive the world solely from one's own point of view
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egocentrism
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the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
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centration
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the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change their key properties
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conservation concept
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approaches that emphasize the sophistication of infants' and young children's thinking in areas that have been important throughout human evolutionary history
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core-knowledge theories
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approaches that emphasize the contribution to children's development of other people and the surrounding culture
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sociocultural theories
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a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to learn
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guided participation
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the second phase of Vygotsky's internalization-of-thought process, in which children develop their self-regulation and problem solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, much as their parents did in the first stage
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private speech
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the tendency to look to social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar or threatening events
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social referencing
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a process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at a higher level than children manage on their own
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social scaffolding
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the range of performance between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal support
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zone of proximal development (ZPD)
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the sharpness of visual discrimination
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visual acuity
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innate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation
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reflexes
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a neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking
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stepping reflex
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clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward the general vicinity of objects they see
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prereaching movements
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the ability to move one-self around in the environment
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self-locomotion
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a form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimus that always evokes a particular reflexive response
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classical conditioning
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learning the relation between one's own behavior and the consequences that result
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instrumental conditioning/operant conditioning
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a reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
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positive reinforcement
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