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330 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Development
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Systematic continuities and changes in the individual over the course of life.
*Describing changes as systematic implies that they are orderly, patterned and relatively enduring. |
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Developmental Continuities
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Ways in which we remain stable over time or continue to reflect our past.
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Developmental Psychology
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Branch of psychology devoted to identifying and explaining the continuities and changes that individuals display over time.
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Developmentalist
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Any scholar, regardless of discipline, who seeks to understand the developmental process.
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Maturation
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Developmental changes in the body or behaviour that result from the aging process rather than from learning, injury, illness, or some other life experience.
*Partly responsible for psychological changes; ability to concentrate, solve problems, understand another person's thoughts or feelings. |
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Learning
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Relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behavioural potential) that results from one's experiences or practice.
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Normative Development
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Developmental changes that characterize most or all members of a species; typical patterns of development.
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Ideographic Development
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Individual variations in the rate, extent, or direction of development.
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Developmental Sciences
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Three major goals: describe, explain, optimize development
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Developmental Sciences: Description
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Observe the behaviour of people of different ages, seeking to specify how people change over time.
Developmentalists seek to understand the important ways that developing humans resemble each other and how they are likely to differ as they proceed through life. Adequate description provides us with facts about development. |
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Developmental Sciences: Explain
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In pursuing this goal of explanation, developmentalists hope to determine why people develop as they typically do and why some people develop differently than others. Explanation centres both on normative changes within individuals and on variations in development between individuals.
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Developmental Sciences: Optimize
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Apply what they have learned in attempts to help people develop in positive directions. This is a practice side to the study of human development that has led to such breakthroughs as ways to:
-Promote strong, affectional ties between fussy, unresponsive infants and their frustrated parents. -Assist children with learning difficulties to succeed at school. -Help socially unskilled children and adolescents prevent the emotional difficulties that could result from having no close friends and being rejected by peers. |
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Holistic Perspective
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Unified view of the developmental process that emphasizes the important interrelationships among the physical, mental, social, and emotional aspects of human development.
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Plasticity
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Capacity for change; a developmental state that has the potential to be shaped by experience.
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Walking and uttering first meaningful words
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1 year old
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Extremely important for setting the stage for adolescence and adulthood
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First 12 years
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Reach sexual maturity
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11-15 years
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Prenatal Period
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Conception to birth
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Infancy
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Birth to 18 months
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Toddler Period
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18 months to 3 years
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Preschool Period
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3-5 years
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Middle Childhood
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5-12 years or so on (until onset of puberty)
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Adolescence
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12 or so to 20 years of age (many developmentalists define the end of adolescence as the point at which the individual begins to work and is reasonably independent of parental sanctions.
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Young Adulthood
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20-40 years old
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Middle Age
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40-65 years old
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Old Age
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65+ years old
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Popularity
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Social skills: warmth, friendliness, willingness to cooperate; age at which child reaches puberty: boys who reach puberty early enjoy better relations with their peers; children who do well in school tend to be more popular with their peers.
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Original Sin (Thomas Hobbes)
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Idea that children are inherently negative creatures who must be taught to re-channel their selfish interests into socially acceptable outlet.
Children are passive subjects to be moulded by parents. |
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Innate Purity (Jaques Rousseau)
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Idea that infants are born with an intuitive sense of right and wrong that is often misdirected by the demands and restrictions of society. Children are actively involved in the shaping of their own intellects and personalities. The child is not the "passive recipient of a tutor's instruction" but a "busy, testing, motivated explorer"
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Tabula Rasa (John Locke)
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The idea that the mind of an infant is a blank slate and that all knowledge, abilities, behaviours, and motives are acquired through experience.
Child's role is passive. |
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Believed that young, untrained infants share many characteristics with their non-human ancestors.
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Charles Darwin
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Development of the individual child retraces the entire evolutionary history of the species, thereby illustrating the ascent of man.
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Charles Darwin
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Invented 'baby biographies'. Famous for his daily records of the early development of his son.
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Charles Darwin
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Cephalocaudal Trend
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Body proportion; head-down
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Changes in Height and Weight
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Rapid but uneven growth in the first 2 years.
Birth weight doubles by 6 months and triples by a year. |
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Proximodistal Trend
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Body proportion; centre-outward
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Skeletal Development
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Soft cartilage, gradually ossify
Skull is soft at birth; separated by 6 soft spots called fontanelles. Single skull by age 2 X-rays to estimate physical maturation Not all bones grow and harden at the same rate. |
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Muscular Development
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Babies are born with all the muscle fibers they'll ever have.
35% water Muscles also grow in cephaulocaudal and proximodistal fashion. Maturation speeds up in adolescence. |
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Variations in Physical Development
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Uneven process - different parts of body have unique growth patterns.
(Brain and head grow faster than the rest of our body; sexual and reproductive organs grow slowly until adolescence, then very fast). The rate of development also varies from one individual to another. Cultural and subcultural variation. |
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What accounts for variation?
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Species' heredity (maturational program)
Environmental factors (eg. food we eat) |
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Brain Growth Spurt
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Prenatal month 7 to age.
Brain weight increases dramatically Brain is 25% of its full weight at birth, and grows to 75% of its full weight by age 2. |
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Neurons
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Neurons are basic units of the brain (most are formed by the end of the second trimester).
Glia develop and produce myelin. Neurons assume specialized functions (eg. as cells of visual area of the brain) Synaptogenesis proceeds rapidly. Baby has far more neurons and connections than adults. |
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Synaptogenesis
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Connections
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Synaptic Pruning
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When a synapse isn't stimulated, it's connection is lost.
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Synaptic Pruning - Chimp Study
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Visual deprivation resulted in neuronal atrophy (their eyes wasted away). If the deprivation lasted less than 7 months it was reversible. If longer, they were permanently blinded.
Stimulation: more extensive neuronal connections. |
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Brain Plasticity
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The brain is shaped by experience.
Early experiences have large impact on brain development. Ongoing stimulation critical for development. Genes provide guidelines for brain configuration; experience determines specific architecture. Not all parts of brain develop at the same rate (birth - sub-cortical areas are most developed. Control involuntary functions, eg. reflexes) |
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Cerebral Controls Higher Functions
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First to mature are primary motor and sensory areas.
Motor - moving arms Sensory - vision, hearing, smelling, taste. |
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Myelinization
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Process of coating neurons with myelin sheath.
Occurs at different rates. Process follows a chronological sequence. Sensory pathways to brain myelinated at birth. Proceeds rapidly over first years of life. Frontal cortex - not full myelinated until adolescence or early adulthood. |
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Cerebral Lateralization
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The brain is a lateral organ, because it consists of two sides that control our functions.
The specialization of brain functions in the left and right hemispheres. Preference for handedness |
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When Does Lateralization Occur?
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Begins to differentiate prenatally.
Lateral preferences get stronger with age. |
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Basic Trends
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Motor development proceeds via: cephaulocaudal, proximodistal.
Skills that involve head, neck, upper body appear first. Skills involving trunk and shoulders appear before those of hands and feet. |
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Maturational Viewpoint
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Unfolding of a genetically programmed series of events.
Evidence from cross-cultural findings. |
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Lifts Head While On Stomach
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3.2 months
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Rolls over
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4.7 months
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Sits Without Support
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7.8 months
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Crawls
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9 months
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Stands Well Alone
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13.9 months
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Walks Well
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14.3 months
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Experiential Hypothesis
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Opportunities to practice motor skills are important.
Those who don't practice early will still catch up eventually. Evidence from early orphanage experience. |
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Dynamic Systems Theory
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New skills are active reorganizations of existing skills.
Reorganization occurs as new, more effective ways of exploring are sought. Environment provides motivation, maturation provides foundation. |
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Voluntary Reaching
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Emerges at 3 months.
Different from initial pre-reaching. Babies differ in how they reach for objects. Not totally controlled by vision. |
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Pre-Reaching
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Primitive thrusts, uncoordinated
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Manipulatory Skills
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Ulnar grasp, pincer grasp.
2nd year: become even more proficient. Simple movements coordinated into harder ones. |
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Ulnar Grasp
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Emerges at 4-5 months
Not much tactile exploration |
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Pincer Grasp
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Emerges at 6-12 months.
Use thumbs more. More skilled at manipulating objects. |
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Optical Flow
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Perceived movement/size of objects.
Uses optical flow to understand locomotion. Orient themselves in space. Improve posture. More efficient crawling. |
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Cognitive and Social Consequences
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May foster perceptual development.
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Later Motor Development
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Gross and fine motor improvements.
Hard-eye coordination. No sex differences until puberty. |
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Sensory State
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Holds unlimited bits of raw data for very short periods of time. Not all passes into conscious awareness.
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Working Memory
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Critically important place for how people process information in the world. If it passes through sensory, becomes working memory. Immediate memory where you manipulate the information for a short period of time. Conscious and allows some sensory information to reach conscious awareness (eg. look up phone number and remember in head long enough to call)
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Information-Processing Approach
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Assumes humans operate like computers.
Began with multi-store model; because they were using computers. Brains have certain components. Start off with sensory store/register. When you are first exposed to information, it enters through your sensory store. |
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Magic 7
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The amount of information in a chain you can remember.
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Chunking
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Remembering multiple things together.
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Processing Speed
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Asking what you to perform what would normally be considered a basic and routine task, quickly and accurately.
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Long-Term Memory
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When information passes into permanent storage.
No known limits. |
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Fuzzy Trace Theory
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People rely on fuzzy traces of information.
Example: You remember and can summarize the gist of a novel you've read, but can't recall precise details. Can remember theme of book long after details are forgotten. |
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Executive Functions
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Considered to be as important as one's intelligence, in terms of success.
Includes attention, memory, planning ability. Can be built upon and improved. Example: humans can improve a computer, and can improve themselves; the distinction is a computer can't improve on its own. |
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Attention
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State of awareness where in the senses are selectively focused on components of the environment. Process that varies; multi-dimensional. Can be conscious or unconscious process. Can often repeat the gist of what you are unconsciously paying attention to. Develops over life, reaches peak at 16. Big shifts at 6, 11 and 16.
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Most commonly diagnosed problems in school age kids
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ADD and ADHD
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Selective Attention
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Choosing what to focus on
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Sustained Attention
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Ability to maintain attention over time
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Executive Attention
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Choosing what features of the environment to pay attention to.
3, more proficient between ages 7-11. Associated with planning and self-regulation. |
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Behavioural Inhibition
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A temperamental attribute reflecting a tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people or situations.
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Memory
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Refers to storage of information and retrieval.
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Event Memory
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Refers to stored memories, events; eg. what you ate for dinner on sunday.
Memory of important things that happen to you. Children remember better once they have language. Remember best events that happen regularly. Familiar events organized into events; unusual details often forgotten. |
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False Memory Syndrome
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Reporting what happened, more accurate than those questioned. Children under the age of 9 are most susceptible to leading questions, but anyone can be induced.
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Mneunomics
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Strategies used to consciously help you remember.
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Organization
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Using meaningful clues to help you organize what you need to learn.
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Recognition Memory
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Why multiple choice exams are easier.
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Recall Memory
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Can be improved using cued recall.
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Social Learning Theory
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Emphasis learning through the environment.
Explains some things but not too much. Kids learn to speak by imitation; explains accents. Explains language you learn; you wouldn't learn to speak a language you hadn't heard before. |
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Reinforcement
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Positive reinforcement when children do things right; negative reinforcement when wrong.
People don't generally use reinforcement when their children say things right. |
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Noam Chompsky (Nativist)
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Argues that language is a development that reflects maturation of language structures that are more or less innate.
Children are destined to talk. The underlying structure of all languages are going to be similar. We come with an LAD (language acquisition device). |
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First Words
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The words you first acquire are significant to you.
Kids go from non-speak to fluent speakers in a really short period of time (between ages 2-4). Kids learning to talk is like learning to walk, as opposed to learning to read. Talking/Walking - short period of time without direction. Reading - slow progression, need direction. |
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First words come around the age of...
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1 year old
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On average, 1 year olds know ____ words
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Three
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Holophrases
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A single word conveys the meaning of a phrase.
Example: Eat = I am hungry, give me food. |
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Object Permanence
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Know that something continues to exist even when you can't see it.
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Semantics
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What words mean
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Over-extended meaning of the word
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Using a word to refer to a larger group of people/things than the world actually implies.
Example: calling all men daddy. |
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Learned based on cognitive development and external influences (environmental factors)
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Language
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Coos
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Progress to babbling around 5 months.
Early sounds are vowels. Oooo, aaaaa. Means they're happy |
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Phonemes
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Smallest unit of sound that has meaning in a language. Should at least be 26 phonemes (reflecting each letter of the alphabet); more than 45 in the English language (because of things like 'th', 'sh', 'ch')
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Phonetic Grip
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Stop pronouncing sounds you don't hear.
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What Behaviours are Adaptive?
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Those that elicit care and attention; smiling.
Increase likelihood that infant will be cared for and eventually grow up to reproduce. Attachments form gradually. |
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Stranger Anxiety
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Wary or fretful reaction exhibited by infants/toddlers when approached by an unfamiliar person. Most infants react positively to strangers until they form their first attachment.
Peaks at about 8-10 months. |
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All species have built in behaviours to foster attachment.
Establishing attachments adaptive. Imprinting is adaptive. Greater reactions to strangers/separation in laboratory than at home. Infants from cultures with closer rearing styles. |
Ethological Viewpoint
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Infants (6-8) have developed schemas of familiar faces.
Schemas: for the return of absent companions (leaving room). |
Cognitive Development Viewpoint
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Attachment Related Fears
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Separation Anxiety Stranger Anxiety |
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Parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, delighted by reunion.
Child feels safe and explores the room or is outgoing with strangers. 65-70% of one year olds |
Secure Attachment
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Detached from their parents. Show little distress on separation from one another and avoid contact on return.
Not fearful of strangers, but may avoid them. 20% of 1 year olds |
Avoidant Attachment
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Parent-infant relationship in which the baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.
Unlikely to explore the room and are wary of strangers. 10% of 1 year olds |
Resistant Attachment
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Seem to both approach and avoid mothers.
May act dazed or freeze. 5-10% of 1 year olds. |
Disorganized/Disoriented
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Risk factors for insensitive caregiving. Opportunity to establish a close relationship.
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Caregiving Hypothesis
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Infant characteristics. |
Temperament Hypothesis
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Factors That Affect Attachment
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Caregiving hypothesis
Opportunity to establish a close relationship Infant characteristics Quality of caregiving/family context |
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Babies differ in 9 distinct behavioural ways....
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Motor activity; regular feeding/sleep cycle; novelty; sensitivity; adaptability; intensity; friendliness; attention span; distractability.
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BT: Motor Activity
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Quiet vs loud, still vs restless
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BT: Regular Feeding/Sleep Cycle
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Fall into routine quickly; fall asleep/awaken like clockwork.
Or; sleep/wake up at different times every day. |
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BT: Novelty
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Tolerate and accept new things; or like things to stay the same.
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BT: Sensitivity
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Sensitive to tiny changes. Gradually bring in change
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BT: Adaptability
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How well you react to changes in your environment.
Can bring some babies anywhere. |
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BT: Intensity
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How severe your response is to something.
Whimpering vs howling |
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BT: Friendliness
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How happy you are and happy to be around other people.
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BT: Attention Span
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How long you can pay attention to something.
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BT: Distractability
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How easily you can be distracted from the activity you're doing.
Play until you hear a noise; oblivious to everything. |
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Happy, delightful, friendly.
Generally approach new events positively. Aren't bothered by much; nothing you can do to upset them. Regular biological functions. Good eating/sleeping cycles. Adjust well to change. Most people think the parents are amazing. Parents feel like they're great; can improve parent-infant bond. |
Dream Baby (40%)
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Nothing you can do to make the baby happy.
High needs Likely to have problems when they go to school Cry more, more irritable. Intense reactions. Makes you feel like a terrible parent; can negatively impact the parent-child bond. |
Difficult Baby (10%)
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Not as negative as difficult babies.
Passive-resistant. Far fewer intense reactions. |
Slow To Warm Up Baby (15%)
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Describes emotional relationship between two people; mutual affection; the desire to maintain proximity.
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Attachment
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A deep emotional bond that an infant develops with its primary caregiver.
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Reciprocal Relationships: Attachment
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Participants adjust behaviours in response to partner; like a dance.
Sensitively tuned 'emotional dance' in which caregiver-infant interaction is mutually rewarding. Promotes attachment |
Synchronized Routines
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The Asocial Phase (0-6 weeks)
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Many kinds of stimuli produce positive reactions.
By the end of this period, they are starting to show a preference. |
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The Phase of Indiscriminate Attachments (6 weeks - 6 or 7 months)
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Enjoy human company but indiscriminate as to who their company is.
Smile more at people, fuss when any adult puts them down. By 3-6 months, showing preference for regular caregiver, but enjoy attention from almost anyone. |
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The Phase of Specific Attachments (7-9 months)
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Begin to protest only when separated from one particular individual.
Become war of stranger. Attachment figure considered secure base. Need to rely on another person in order to have the confidence to act independently. |
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The Phase of Multiple Attachments
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By 18 months, few infants are attached to only one person.
Siblings, fathers, extended family, nannies, daycare, etc. |
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In primates, the innate pleasure derived from close physical contact; it is the basis of the infants first attachment.
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Contact Comfort
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Separation Anxiety
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Wary or fretful reaction exhibited by infants/toddlers when separated from the person(s) to whom they are attached.
Appears around 6 months and peaks at about 15 months. |
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Strange Situation Test: Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters and Wall (1978)
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A parent-infant 'separation and reunion' procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child's attachment.
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Alternative method of assessing attachment security that is based on observation of the child's attachment-related behaviours at home.
Can be used with infants, toddlers and preschool children. |
Attachment Q-Set
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Cultural Variations in Attachment
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Japanese parents rarely leave their infants with substitute caregivers.
Germans encourage greater independence and less clinginess. Israelis communally reared kibbutz children; often sleep in infant houses without parents. Percentage of infants and toddlers who fall into attachment categories differs from culture to culture. |
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Cultural Differences in Attachment
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German children tend to show greater avoidant patterns than North American children.
Japanese children tend to have more intense separation and stranger anxieties. Israeli children tend to have more insecure attachments. |
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Caregiving
Temperament Quality of caregiving is most important in determining whether attachment is secure or insecure. Temperament is the better predictor of type of insecurity infants display, if there is an insecure attachment. Fearful children tend to display greater distress (resistant). Fearless children less disturbed by presence of stranger (avoidant) Both contribute to attachment security |
Integrative Theory of Attachment (Kochanska, 1998): What Affects Attachment
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Cause of Insecure Attachment
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Parenting that is truly abusive, neglectful or erract-insecure.
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Mothers of resistant infants are interested in their children and provide close contact, but are inconsistent in caregiving.
Parents who have mood disorders or suffering from a traumatic event (display frightening, contradictory and unpleasant behaviours). |
Ainsworth's Caregiving Hypothesis: Function of Kind of Mothering
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PC: Sensitivity
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Responding promptly to infant's signals
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PC: Positive Attitude
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Positive affect and affection for the infant.
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PC: Synchrony
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Smooth, reciprocal interactions
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PC: Mutuality
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Attending to same thing
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PC: Support
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Emotional support for child's activities
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PC: Stimulation
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Directing actions toward the infant.
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Infant Attachment: Secure
Objectivity and balance. Neither idealize nor feel angry about parents. |
Autonomous/Secure
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Infant Attachment: Avoidant
Devalue importance of attachment. Idealize parents without specific experiences; discussed intellectually. |
Dismissing
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Infant Attachment: Resistant
Highly charged emotion. Anger towards parents. Overwhelmed and confused. |
Overinvolved
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Infant Attachment: Disorganized/Disoriented
Show characteristics of any of the other three patterns. May discuss abuse or loss of loved one. |
Unresolved
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Coercive tactics decrease compassion.
Affective explanations increase compassion. Example: You may Sally cry, it's not nice to hit! |
Development of Altruism
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Toddlers show sympathy/compassion.
Rarely make self-sacrificial responses. |
Early Pro-social Behaviour
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Altruistic behaviour increases in school years
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4-6 years: Show more real helping behaviors; enjoy to help others.
Rarely 'play act' the role of altruist Elementary school onwards: pro-social behaviors become more common. |
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Social-Cognitive and Affective Contributors
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Role taking skills.
Pro-social moral reasoning Pro-social dispositions established early and remain relatively stable over time. |
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Present dilemmas where someone has to decide what to do in a situation where helping them is not to their own benefit.
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Pro-Social Dilemmas
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Causes them to think of altruistic lessons they have learned, and feel personal responsibility to help those in distress - would feel guilty if they didn't.
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Felt Responsibility Process
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Cultural Influences on Altruism: Individualistic vs Collectivist Society |
Western Society: focuses on individualistic needs, not obligated toward others.
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Cultural Influences on Altruism: Level of Industrialization
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Kids were more altruistic in less industrialized societies, and in larger families.
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Norm of social responsibility
Reinforcing practicing and preaching altruism Children generally want to live up to standards of those they admire. Cannot be reinforced with rewards, or they will associate helping others with getting something in return. |
Social Influences on Altruism
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Childhood: High cognitive and social competencies.
Adolescence: High self-esteem, excellent, social skills, strong moral/pro-social concern, high academic achievement. |
Authoritative
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Childhood: Average cognitive and social competencies.
Adolescence: Average academic performance and social skills, more comforting than adolescents of permissive parents. |
Authoritarian
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Childhood: Low cognitive and social competencies.
Adolescence: Poor self-control and academic performance, more drug use than adolescents of authoritative or authoritarian parents. |
Permissive
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Accepting/Responsive + Controlling/Demanding
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Authoritative
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Accepting/Response + Uncontrolling/Undemanding
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Permissive
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Aloof/Unresponsive + Controlling/Demanding
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Authoritarian
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Aloof/Unresponsive + Uncontrolling/Undemanding
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Uninvolved
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Dynamic
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Constantly developing.
Embedded within larger culture. Culture is also changing. |
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Changes in Larger Culture
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Single adults; later marriage; decreased childbearing; women's employment; divorce; single parent families; poverty; re-marriage
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Dimensions of Parenting
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Acceptance/Responsiveness
Warmth and Affection Demandingness/Control Supervision and Limits |
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Behavioural or Psychological Control?
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Behavioural control leads to better outcomes.
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The "Notel" Study
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"Before" TV, children higher in creativity and reading than Canadian peers with TV access
"After" TV declines in reading and creativity compared to peers. Overall there are advantages and disadvantages. |
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Television Literacy
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The ability to:
Understand how info is conveyed on TV. Properly interpret info. |
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Effects of Watching Violence on TV
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Cartoons especially violent.
Violence often portrayed with humour. Mean-world beliefs. Desensitization hypothesis. Gender stereotypes. Racial/ethnic stereotypes. Marketing in commercials. Undermining health. |
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1. Non-social activity
2. Onlooker play 3. Parallel play 4. Associative play 5. Cooperative play |
Sociability in the Pre-School Years
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2/3 of children can be classified as either:
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Popular, rejected, neglected, controversial
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1/3 of children are classified as:
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Average status
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Factors Influencing Peer Nomination
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Parenting Style
Temperament Cognitive Skills Social Behaviour Rejected-Aggressive Rejected-Withdrawn |
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Advantages to Having Friends
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Security and social support
Practice resolving conflicts Preparation for adult love relationships |
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Friendship: Before 8 Years
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Basis is common activity
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Social Interactions
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Attachment to preferred play partner.
Appearance of altruistic behaviours. "Chemistry" of friendships. Stability of friendships. |
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Peer-Groups Promote Norms
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Group defined rules for behaviour.
Specify how one must look, act, dress, think. Increasing responsiveness to peer pressure |
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Age Differences in Conformity: Pro-Social and Anti-Social Acts
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Pro-social: not much change over grades 3-12
Anti-social: peak in 9th grade and then decline. |
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Cross-Pressure Problems
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Parents and peers tend to exert influence in different domains.
Parental influence through patenting. Adolescent behaviour product of both parental and peer influences. |
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Computer-Assisted Instructions (CIA)
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Drills
Tutorials Games |
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Benefits of Computer Program
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Teaching students to program can foster mastery motivation, self-efficacy
Novel ways of thinking, problem-solving, creativity, meta-cognition. The Internet Access to info at home Social benefits Health benefits |
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Concerns About Computers
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Video games
Social inequality Internet Exposure - Porn - Recruitment - Bullying |
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Parallels cognition in Piaget's stages
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Cognitive-Development
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Ability to understand other person's perspective.
Presented interpersonal dilemmas with multiple characters to children. |
Selman's Role Taking Theory
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Selman's Stages
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Egocentric or undifferentiated (3-6 years)
Social Informational Role Taking (6-8 years) Self-Reflective Role Taking (8-10 years) Mutual Role Taking (10-12 years) Societal Role Taking (12-15 years) |
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SS #1 - Egocentric or Undifferentiated
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3-6 years
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SS #2 - Social Informational Role Taking
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6-8 years
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SS #3 - Self-Reflective Role Taking
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8-10 years
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SS #4 - Mutual Role Taking
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10-12 years
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SS #5 - Societal Role Taking
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12-15 years
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As role-taking skills improve - understanding of meaning and character of relationships changes.
Changes relationships, eg. friendships Role-taking skills are related to social experience. |
Social cognition
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Caring, nurturing, prepares for role of mother and wife.
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Expressive Role
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Dominant, assertive, independent, reliable.
Support and provide for family |
Instrumental Role
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Gender Typing
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Process by which children acquire gender roles.
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Small But Reliable Psychological Differences Between Sexes
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Verbal Ability Visual/spatial abilitiesMathematical ability Aggression |
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Sex Difference: Aggression
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Overt vs covert
Boys more physically aggressive |
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Sex Difference: Mathematical Ability
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Boys show small advantage over girls with mathematical reasoning, and feel more confident in their math skills.
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Sex Difference: Visual/Spatial Abilities
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Boys outperform girls on tests with visual/spatial.
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Sex Difference: Verbal Ability
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Girls acquire language and develop skills at younger age; and are stronger at reading comprehension, speech fluency.
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Possible Sex Differences
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Activity level
Fear, timidity, risk taking Develop mental vulnerability Emotional Expressivity/Sensitivity Compliance |
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Steps in Gender Identity Development
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Discriminate males from females.
Label males and females. Sex is a permanent attribute. |
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Baby's Head
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A baby's head is not fully formed. Takes two years for fontanels to fully close.
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Stages of Childbirth
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Dilation
Expulsion Placental Maternal Hemorrhage |
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Uncontrolled bleeding; most common reason for mothers dying in childbirth
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Maternal Hemorrhage
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Mother pushes to birth the baby. Baby has 'crowned' when the top of their head is fully visible during a contraction. Overwhelmingly powerful urge to push baby out.
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Expulsion
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Cervix expands. Transition; most painful and intense contractions (7-8 cm)
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Dilation
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Expulsion of the placenta (after birth)
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Placental
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Lightening
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Feel lighter; occurs when the baby drops.
2 weeks before birth. |
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Hospital Birth vs. Home Birth
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In western society, hospital births are considered safer.
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95% of deliveries include some form of medication
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Analgesics
Assification Anesthetics |
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General; puts to sleep. Lose pain sensation, but can also lose urge to push.
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Anesthetics
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Dull ones response to pain. Makes body not interpret pain signals as pain.
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Analgesics
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Suspected to be the substance that accounts for the 'runner's high'.
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Beta Endorphins
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Baby's oxygen is cut off. Can cause cerebral palsy. Suspicions that learning disabilities can be linked to mild cases.
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Anoxia.
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Ratings of 0, 1 or 2 on the 5 measures. Scored 1-5 minutes after birth.
1 - in between 2 - highly functional Max score: 2 on all 5 measures; 10. 8-9 - healthy baby score. 7+ - likely to survive |
Apgar
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Apgar Measures
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Heart rate
Breathing Muscle Tone Colour Reflex Stimulation |
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A dimension of parenting that describes the amount of responsiveness and affection that a parent displays toward a child.
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Acceptance/Responsiveness
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The process of modifying existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences.
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Accomodation
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Anxiety or uneasiness that new residents may feel upon attempting to assimilate a new culture and its traditions.
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Accultural Stress
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Causal explanations that a person provides for his or her success and failures.
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Achievement Attributions
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A viral disease that can be transmitted from a mother to her fetus or neonate and that results in a weakening of the body's immune system and, ultimately, death.
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AIDS
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The notion that our genotypes affect the types of environments that we prefer adn seek out.
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Active Genotype and Environmental Correlations
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A debate among developmental theorists about whether children are active contributors to their own development, or rather, passive recipients of environmental influence.#
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Active/Passive Issue
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An inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of the environment.
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Adaptation
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Siegler's model to describe how strategies change over time; the view that multiple strategies exist within a child's cognitive repertoire at any one time, with these strategies competing with one another for use.
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Adaptive Strategy Choice Model
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Study in which adoptees are compared with their biological relatives and their adoptive relatives to estimate the heritability of an attribute (or attributes).
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Adoption Design
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Discipline that focuses a child's attention on the harm or distress that his or her conduct has caused others.
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Affective Explanations
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A point between the 22nd and 28th prenatal weeks when survival outside the womb is possible.
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Age of Viability
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Behaviour performed with the intention of harming a living being who is motivated to avoid this treatment.
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Aggression
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Alternate forms of a gene that can appear at a particular site on a chromosome.
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Alleles
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Alternative Birth Centre
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A hospital birthing room or other independent facility that provides a homelike atmosphere for childbirth but still makes medical technology available.
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Japanese concept; refers to an infant's feeling of total dependence on his/her mother and the presumption of mother's love and indulgence.
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Amae
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A method of extracting amniotic fluid from a pregnant woman so that fetal body cells within the fluid can be tested for chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic defects.
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Amniocentesis
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A watertight membrane that surrounds the developing embryo, serving to regulate its temperature and to cushion it against injuries.
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Amnion
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Reasoning that involves using something you already know to help reason about something not known yet.
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Analogical Reasoning
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Females who develop male-like external genitalia because of exposure to male sex hormones during the prenatal period.
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Androgenized Females
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Gender-role orientation in which the individual has incorporated a large number of both masculine and feminine attributes into his or her personality.
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Androgyny
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A birth defect in which the brain and neural tube fail to develop or develop incompletely and the skull does not close.
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Anencephaly
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Attributing life and lifelike qualities to inanimate objects.
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Animism
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A life-threatening eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and a compulsive fear of getting fat.
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Anorexia Nervosa
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Tendency of 8-12 month olds to search for a hidden object where they previously found it even after they have seen it moved to a new location.
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A-not-B Error
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Ability to keep the true properties or characteristics of an object in mind despite the deceptive appearance that the object has assumed; notably lacking among young children during the pre-conceptual period.
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Appearance/Reality Distinction
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Phenomenon whereby characteristics of the student and of the school environment interact to affect student outcomes, such that any given educational practice may be effective with some students but not with others.
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Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (ATI)
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Piaget's term for the process by which children interpret new experiences by incorporating them into their existing schemes.
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Assimilation
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Play form of social discourse in which children pursue their own interests but will swap toys or comment on each other's activities.
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Associative
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Retraining therapeutic intervention in which helpless children are persuaded to attribute failures to their lack of effort rather than a lack of ability.
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Attribution
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Memory for important experiences or events that have happened to the individual.
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Autobiographical Memory
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Piaget's 2nd state of moral development, in which children realize that rules are arbitrary agreements that can be challenged and changed with the consent of the people they govern.
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Autonomous Morality
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Capacity to make decisions independently, serve as our own source of emotional strength, and otherwise manage life tasks without depending on others for assistance; an important developmental task of adolescence.
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Autonomy
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Theory proposing that REM sleep in infancy is a form of self-stimulation that helps the central nervous system to develop.
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Autostimluation Theory
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Attempts to regulate a child's or adolescent's conduct through firm discipline and monitoring of his or her conduct.
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Behavioural Control
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The scientific study of how genotype interacts with environment to determine behavioural attributes such as intelligence, personality, and mental health.
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Behavioural Genetics
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A temperamental attribute reflecting a tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people or situations.
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Behavioural Inhibition
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A school of thinking in psychology that holds that conclusions about human development should be based on controlled observations of overt behaviour rather than speculation about unconscious motives or other unobservable phenomena; the philosophical underpinning for the early theories of learning.
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Behaviourism
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The process whereby we explain and predict what people do based on what we understand their desires and beliefs to be.
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Belief-Desire Reasoning
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A comparison of the possible benefits of a study for advancing knowledge and optimizing life conditions versus its cost to participants in terms of inconvenience and possible harm.
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Benefits-To-Risks Ratio
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Name given to the ball of cells formed when the fertilized egg first begins to divide.
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Blastocyst
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Morphemes that cannot stand alone but that modify the meaning of free morphemes (eg. the -ed attached to English verbs to indicate past tense)
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Bound Morphemes
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A delivery in which the fetus emerges feet first or buttocks first rather than head first.
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Breech Birth
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Structure located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that controls language production.
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Broca's Area
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Genetic restriction of phenotype to a small number of developmental outcomes; a highly canalized attribute is one for which genes channel development along predetermined pathways, so that the environment has little effect on the phenotype that emerges.
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Canalization
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Principle specifying that the last number in a counting sequence specifies the number of items in a set.
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Cardinality
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Ainsworth's notion that the type of attachment that an infant develops with a particular caregiver depends primarily on the kind of caregiving he or she has received from that person.
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Caregiving Hypothesis
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A heterozygous individual who displays no sign of a recessive allele in his or her own phenotype but can pass this gene to offspring.
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Carrier
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In Freud's theory, a young boy's fear that his father will castrate him as punishment for his rivalrous conduct.
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Castration Anxiety
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A period of accelerated growth in which children who have experienced growth deficits grow very rapidly to "catch up to" the growth trajectory that they are genetically programmed to follow.
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Catch-Up Growth
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The tendency of preoperational children to attend to one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others; contrasts with decentration.
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Centration
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The outer layer of the brain's cerebrum that is involved in voluntary body movements, perception, and higher intellectual functions such as learning, thinking and speaking.
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Cerebral Cortex
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Highest brain centre; includes both hemispheres of the brain and the fibers that connect them.
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Cerebrum
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Model of family influence in which children are believed to influence their parents rather than vice versa.
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Child-Effects Model
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A membrane that becomes attached to the uterine tissues to gather nourishment for the embryo.
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Chorion
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An alternative to amniocentesis in which fetal cells are extracted from the chorion for prenatal tests. CVS can be performed earlier in pregnancy than is possible with amniocentesis.
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Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
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In ecological systems theory, changes in the individual or the environment that occur over time and influence the direction development takes.
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Chronosystem
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A type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a meaningful non-neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response originally made only to the non-neutral stimulus.
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Classical Conditioning
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A congenital disorder in which the roof of the mouth does not close properly during embryonic development, resulting in an opening or groove in the roof of the mouth.
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Cleft Palate
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A home in which family members often annoy one another and use aggressive or otherwise antisocial tactics as a method of coping with these aversive experiences.
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Coercive Home Environment
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State of affairs in which there is a balanced, or harmonious, relationship between one's thought processes and the environment.
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Cognitive Equilibrium
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In Vygotsky's theory, the use of private speech to guide problem-solving behaviour
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Cognitive Self-Guidance System
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Age-related differences among cohorts that is attributable to cultural/historical differences in cohort's growing up experiences rather than to true developmental changes.
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Cohort Effect
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Society that values cooperative interdependence, social harmony, and adherence to group norms. These societies generally hold that the group's well-being is more important than that of the individual.
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Collectivist (Or Communal) Society
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Compliance based on the child's eagerness to cooperate with a responsive parent who has been willing to cooperate with him or her.
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Committed Compliance
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Special educational programs designed to further the cognitive growth and scholastic achievements of disadvantaged children.
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Compensatory Interventions
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The percentage of cases in which a particular attribute is present for one member of a twin pair if it is present for the other.
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Concordance Rate
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Learned response to a stimulus that was not originally capable of producing the response.
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Conditioned Response
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Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a particular response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that always elicits the response.
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Conditioned Stimulus
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Some factor other than the independent variable that, if not controlled by the experimenter, could explain any differences across treatment conditions in participants' performance on the dependent variable.
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Confounding Variable
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Genetic anomaly that causes the adrenal glands to produce unusually high levels of androgen from the prenatal period onward; often has masculinizing effects on female fetuses.
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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
|
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A problem that is present at birth; such defects may stem from genetic and prenatal influences or from complications of the birth process.
|
Congenital Defect
|
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Field of cognitive science that seeks to understand mental processes as resulting from assemblies (or groups) of real or artificial neurons.
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Connectionism
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|
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Recognition that the properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way.
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Conservation
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One who gains knowledge by by acting or otherwise operating on objects and events to discover their properties.
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Constructivist
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Learning that has no immediate relevance to the present context, as is done in modern schools; acquiring knowledge for knowledge's sake.
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Context-Independent Learning
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View of children as active entities whose developmental paths represent a continuous dynamic interplay between internal and external forces.
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Contextual Model
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A debate among theorists about whether developmental changes are quantitative and continuous, or qualitative and discontinuous.
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Continuity/Discontinuity Issue
|
|
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Kohlberg's term for the third and fourth stages of moral reasoning, in which moral judgments are based on a desire to gain approval or to uphold laws that maintain social order.
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Conventional Morality
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Thinking that requires an individual to come up with a single correct answer to a problem; what IQ tests measure.
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Convergent Thinking
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Educational practice whereby children of different races or ability levels are assigned to teams; each team member works on problems geared to his or her ability level, and all members are reinforced for "pulling together" and performing well as a team.
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Cooperative Learning Methods
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A type of research design that indicates the strength of associations among variables; though correlated variables are systematically related, these relationships are not necessarily causal.
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Correlational Design
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The fact that long-term changes in the environment may limit the conclusions of a longitudinal project to that generation of children who were growing up while the study was in progress.
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Cross-Generational Problem
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Conflicts stemming from differences in the values and practices advocated by parents and those favoured by peers.
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Cross-Pressures
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A research design in which subjects from different age groups are studied at the same point in time.
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Cross-Sectional Design
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The ability to understand relations or solve problems that depend on knowledge acquired from schooling and other cultural influences.
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Crystallized Intelligence
|
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The notion that impoverished environments inhibit intellectual growth and that these inhibiting effects accumulate over time.
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Cumulative-Deficit Hypothesis
|
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The ability of concrete operational children to consider multiple aspects of a stimulus or situation; contrasts with centration.
|
Decentration
|
|
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Ability to reproduce a modeled activity that has been witnessed at some point in the past.
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Deferred Imitation
|
|
|
A childhood growth disorder that is triggered by emotional deprivation and characterized by decreased production of GH, slow growth, and small stature.
|
Deprivation Dwarfism
|
|
|
A numerical measure of an infant's performance on developmental schedule, relative to the performance of other infants of the same age.
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Developmental Quotient
|
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Distinct phase within a larger sequence of development; a period characterized by a particular set of abilities, motives, behaviours, or emotions that occur together and form a coherent pattern.
|
Developmental Stage
|
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An intelligence test score that reflects well or poorly a person performs compared with others of the same age.
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Deviation IQ Score
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A synthetic hormone, formerly prescribed to prevent miscarriage, that can produce cervical cancer in adolescent female offspring and genital-tract abnormalities in males.
|
DES
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Theory specifying that perception involves detecting distinctive features or cues that are contained in the sensory stimulation we receive.
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Differentiation Theory
|
|
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Temperamental profile in which the child is irregular in daily routines and adapts slowly to new experiences, often responding negatively and intensely.
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Difficult Temperament
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Teaching young children how to behave by reinforcing "appropriate" behaviours and by punishing or otherwise discouraging inappropriate conduct.
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Direct Tuition
|
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Imbalances or contradictions between one's thought processes and environmental events. On the other hand, equilibrium refers to a balanced, harmonious relationship between one's cognitive structures and the environment.
|
Disequilibriums
|
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An increase in responsiveness that occurs when stimulation changes.
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Dishabituation
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A viewpoint shared by many social-learning theorists that holds that moral affect, moral reasoning, and moral behaviour may depend as or more on the situation an individual faces than on an internalized set of moral principles.
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Doctrine of Specificity
|
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The ability to represent an object simultaneously as an object in itself and as a representation of something else.
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Dual Representation
|
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An approach to assessing intelligence that evaluates how well individuals learn new material when an examiner provides them with competent objectives.
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Dynamic Assessment
|
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A theory that views motor skills as active reorganizations of previously mastered capabilities that are undertaken to find more effective ways of exploring the environment or satisfying other objectives.
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Dynamical Systems Theory
|
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Those who borrow from many theories in their attempts to predict and explain human development.
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Eclectics
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State of affairs in which the findings of one's research are an accurate representation of processes that occur in the natural environment.
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Ecological Validity
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