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256 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cognition
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The activity of knowing and the processes through which knowledge is acquired
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Cognitive Development
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Changes that occur in mental activities such as attending, perceiving, learning, thinking, and remembering
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Genetic Epistemology
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The experimental study of the development of knowledge, developed by Piaget
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Intelligence
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In Piaget's theory, a basic life function that enables an organism to adapt to the environment
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Cognitive Equilibrium
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Piaget's term for the state of affairs in which there is a balanced, or harmonious, relationship between one's thought processes and the environment
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Constructivist
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One who gains knowledge by acting or otherwise operating on objects and events to discover their properties
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Scheme
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An organized pattern of thought or action that one constructs to interpret some aspect of one's experience (also called cognitive structure)
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Organization
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An inborn tendency to combine and interpret available schemes into coherent systems or bodies of knowledge
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Adaptation
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An inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of the environment
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Assimilation
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The process of interpreting new experiences by incorporating them into existing schemes
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Accommodation
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The process of modifying existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences
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Invariant Developmental Sequence
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A series of developments that occur in one particular order because each development in the sequence is a prerequisite for those appearing later
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Sensorimotor Period
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Piaget's first intellectual stage, from birth to 2 years, when infants are relying on behavioral schemes as a means of exploring and understanding the environment
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Reflex Activity
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First substage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage; infants' actions are confined to exercising innate reflexes, assimilating new objects into these reflexive schemes, and accommodating their reflexes to these novel objects
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Primary Circular Reactions
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Second substage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage; a pleasurable response, centered on the infant's own body, that is discovered by chance and performed over and over
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Secondary Circular Reactions
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Third substage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage; a pleasurable response, centered on an external object, that is discovered by chance and performed over and over
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Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions
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Fourth substage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage; infants begin to coordinate two or more actions to achieve simple objectives. This is the first sign of goal-directed behavior.
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Tertiary Circular Reactions
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Fifth substage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage; an exploratory scheme in which the infant devises a new method of acting on objects to reproduce interesting results
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Inner Experimentation
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In the sixth substage of Piaget's sensorimotor stage, the ability to solve simple problems on a mental or symbolic level without having to rely on trial-and-error experimentation
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Deferred Imitation
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The ability to reproduce a modeled activity that has been witnessed at some point in the past
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Object Permanence
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The realization that objects continue to exist when they are no longer visible or detectable through other senses
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A-not-B error
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Tendency of 8- to 12-month-olds to search for a hidden object where they previously found it even after they have seen it moved to a new location
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Neo-Nativism
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The idea that much cognitive knowledge, such as object concept, is innate, requiring little in the way of specific experiences to be expressed, and that there are biological constraints, in that the mind/brain is designed to process certain types of information in certain ways
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Theory Theories
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Theories of cognitive development that combine neo-nativism and constructivism, proposing that cognitive development progresses by children generating, testing, and changing theories about the physical and social world
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Preoperational Period
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Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about age 2 to age 7, when children are thinking at a symbolic level but are not yet using cognitive operations
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Symbolic Function
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The ability to use symbols (e.g., images and words) to represent objects and experiences
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Representational Insight
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The knowledge that an entity can stand for something other than itself
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Dual Representation (Dual Encoding)
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The ability to represent an object simultaneously as an object itself and as a representation of something else
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Animism
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Attributing life and lifelike qualities to inanimate objects
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Egocentrism
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The tendency to view the world from one's own perspective while failing to recognize that others may have different points of view
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Appearance/Reality of Distinction
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Ability to keep the true properties or characteristics of an object in mind despite the deceptive appearance that object has assumed; notably lacking among young children during the preconceptual period
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Centration (Central Thinking)
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In Piaget's theory, the tendency of preoperational children to attend to one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others
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Conservation
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The recognition that the properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way
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Decentration
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In Piaget's theory, the ability of concrete operational children to consider multiple aspects of a stimulus or situation
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Reversibility
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The ability to negate an action by mentally performing the opposite action
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Identity Training
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An attempt to promote conservation by teaching nonconservers to recognize that a transformed object or substance is the same object or substance, regardless of its new appearance
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Theory of Mind (TOM)
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A person's concepts of mental activity; used to refer to how children conceptualize mental activity and how they attribute intention to and predict the behavior of others; see also belief-desire reasoning
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Belief-Desire Reasoning
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The process whereby we explain and predict what people do based on what we understand their desires and beliefs to be
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False-Belief Task
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A type of task used in theory-of-mind studies, in which the child must infer that another person does not possess knowledge that he or she possesses
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Concrete-Operational Period
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Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about age 7 to age 11, when children are acquiring cognitive operations and thinking more logically about real objects and experiences
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Mental Seriation
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A cognitive operation that allows one to mentally order a set of stimuli along a quantifiable dimension such as height or weight
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Transitivity
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The ability to recognize relations among elements in a serial order (e.g., if A > B and B > C, then A > C)
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Horizontal Decalage
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Piaget's term for a child's uneven cognitive performance; an inability to solve certain problems even though one can solve similar problems requiring the same mental operations
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Formal Operations
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Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development, from age 11 or 12 and beyond, when the individual begins to think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical events
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Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
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In Piaget's theory, a formal operational ability to think hypothetically
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Inductive Reasoning
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The type of thinking that scientists display, where hypotheses are generated and then systematically tested in experiments
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Imaginary Audience
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A result of adolescent egocentrism; adolescents believe that everyone around them is as interested in their thoughts and behaviors as they are themselves
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Sociocultural Theory
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Vygotsky's perspective on cognitive development, in which children acquire their culture's values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society
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Ontogenetic Development
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Development of the individual over his or her lifetime
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Microgenetic Development
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Changes that occur over relatively brief periods of time, in seconds, minutes, or days, as opposed to larger-scale changes, as conventionally studied in ontogenetic development
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Phylogenetic Development
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Development over evolutionary time
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Sociohistorical Development
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Changes that have occurred in one's culture and the values, norms, and technologies such a history has generated
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Tools of Intellectual Adaptation
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Vygotsky's term for methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize from their interactions with more competent members of society
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Zone of Proximal Development
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Vygotsky's term for the range of tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from a more skillful partner
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Scaffolding
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Process by which an expert, when instructing a novice, responds contingently to the novice's behavior in a learning situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or her understanding of a problem
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Guided Participation
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Adult-child interactions in which children's cognitions and modes of thinking are shaped as they participate with or observe adults engaged in culturally relevant activities
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Context-Independent Learning
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Learning that has no immediate relevance to the present context, as is done in modern schools; acquiring knowledge for knowledge's sake
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Egocentric Speech
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Piaget's term for the subset of a young child's utterances that are nonsocial--that is, neither directed to others nor expressed in ways that listeners might understand
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Private Speech
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Vygotsky's term for the subset of a child's verbal utterances that serve a self-communicative function and guide the child's thinking
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Cognitive Self-Guidance System
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In Vygotsky's theory, the use of private speech to guide problem-solving behavior
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Multistore Model
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Information-processing model that depicts information as flowing through three processing units (or stores): the sensory store, the short-term store (STS), and the long-term store (LTS)
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Sensory Store (or Sensory Register)
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First information-processing store, in which stimuli are noticed and are briefly available for further processing
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Short-Term Store (STS) or Working Memory
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Second information-processing store, in which stimuli are retained for several seconds and operated on
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Long-Term Store
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Third information-processing store in which information that has been examined and interpreted is permanently stored for future use
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Executive Control Processes
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The processes involved in regulating attention and determining what to do with information just gathered or retrieved from long-term memory
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Metacognition
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One's knowledge about cognition and about the regulation of cognitive activities
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Knowledge Base
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One's existing information about a topic or content area
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Memory Span
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A general measure of the amount of information that can be held in the short-term store
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Strategies
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Goal-directed and deliberately implemented mental operations used to facilitate task-performance
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Production Deficiency
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A failure to spontaneously generate and use known strategies that could improve learning and memory
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Utilization Deficiency
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A failure to benefit from effective strategies that one has spontaneously produced; thought to occur in the early phases of strategy acquisition when executing the strategy requires much mental effort
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Adaptive Strategy Choice Model
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Siegler's model to describe how strategies change over time; the view that multiple strategies exist within a child's cognitive repertoire at any one time, with these strategies competing with one another for use
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Implicit Cognition
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Thought that occurs without awareness that one is thinking
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Explicit Cognition
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Thinking and thought processes of which we are consciously aware
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Fuzzy-Trace Theory
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Theory proposed by Brainerd and Reyna that postulates that people encode experiences on a continuum from literal, verbatim traces to fuzzy, gistlike traces
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Gist
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A fuzzy representation of information that preserves the central content but few precise details
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Attention Span
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Capacity for sustaining attention to a particular stimulus or activity
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Selective Attention
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Capacity to focus on task-relevant aspects of experience while ignoring irrelevant or distracting information
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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
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An attentional disorder involving distractibility, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior that often leads to academic difficulties, poor self-esteem, and social or emotional problems
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Inhibition
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The ability to prevent ourselves from executing some cognitive or behavioral response
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Event Memory
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Long-term memory for events
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Strategic Memory
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Processes involved as one consciously attempts to retain or retrieve information
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Autobiographical Memory
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Memory for important experiences or events that have happened to us
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Mnemonics (memory strategies)
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Effortful techniques used to improve memory, including rehearsal, organization, and elaboration
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Infantile Amnesia
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A lack of memory for the early years of one's life
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Script
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A general representation of the typical sequencing of events (I.e., what occurs and when) in some familiar context
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Rehearsal
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A strategy for remembering that involves repeating the items one is trying to retain
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Organization
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A strategy for remembering that involves grouping or classifying stimuli into meaningful (or manageable) clusters that are easier to retain
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Retrieval
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Class of strategies aimed at getting information out of the long-term store
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Free Recall
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A recollection that is not prompted by specific cues or prompts
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Cued Recall
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A recollection that is prompted by a cue associated with the setting in which the recalled event originally occurred
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Metamemory
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One's knowledge about memory and memory processes
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Reasoning
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A particular type of problem solving that involves making inferences
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Analogical Reasoning
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Reasoning that involves using something one knows already to help reason about something not known yet
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Relational Primacy Hypothesis
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The hypothesis that analogical reasoning is available in infancy
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Learning to Learn
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Improvements in performance on novel problems as a result of acquiring a new rule or strategy from the earlier solution of similar problems
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Cardinality
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Principle specifying that the last number in a counting sequence specifies the number of items in a set
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Language
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A small number of individually meaningless symbols (sounds, letters, gestures) that can be combined according to agreed-on rules to produce an infinite number of messages
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Communication
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The process by which one organism transmits information to and influences another
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Vocables
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Unique patterns of sound that a prelinguistic infant uses to represent objects, actions, or events
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Psycholinguists
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Those who study the structure and development of children's language
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Phonology
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The sound system of a language and the rules for combining these sounds to produce meaningful units of speech
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Phonemes
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The basic units of sound that are used in a spoken language
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Morphology
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Rules governing the formation of meaningful words from sounds
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Semantics
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The expressed meaning of words and sentences
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Morphemes
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Smallest meaningful language units
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Free morphemes
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Morphemes that can stand alone as a word (e.g., cat, go, yellow)
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Bound morphemes
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Morphemes that can NOT stand alone but that modify the meaning of free morphemes (e.g., the -ed attached to English verbs to indicate past tense)
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Syntax
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The structure of a language; the rules specifying how words and grammatical markers are to be combined to produce meaningful sentences
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Pragmatics
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Principles that underlie the effective and appropriate use of language in social contexts
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Sociolinguistic Knowledge
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Culturally specific rules specifying how language should be structured and used in particular social contexts
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Linguistic Universal
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An aspect of language development that all children share
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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
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Chomsky's term for the innate knowledge of grammar that humans are said to possess--knowledge that might enable young children to infer the rules governing others' speech and to use these rules to produce language
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Universal Grammar
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In nativist theories of language acquisition, the basic rules of grammar that characterize all languages
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Language-Making Capacity
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A hypothesized set of specialized linguistic processing skills that enable children to analyze speech and to detect phonological, semantic, and syntactical relationships
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Aphasia
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A loss of one or more language functions
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Broca's area
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Structure located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that controls language production
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Wernicke's area
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Structure located in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for interpreting speech
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Pidgins
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Structurally simple communication systems that arise when people who share no common languages come into constant contact
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Creoles
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Languages that develop when pidgins are transformed into grammatically complex, "true" languages
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Interactionist Theory
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The notion that biological factors and environmental influences interact to determine the course of language development
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Motherese/Child-Directed Speech
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The short, simple, high-pitched (and often repetitive) sentences that adults use when talking with young children
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Expansions
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Responding to a child's ungrammatical utterance with a grammatically improved form of that statement
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Recasts
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Responding to a child's ungrammatical utterance with a nonrepetitive statement that is grammatically correct
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Prelinguistic Phase
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The period before children utter their first meaningful adult words
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Coos
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Vowel-like sounds that young infants repeat over and over during periods of contentment
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Babbles
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Vowel/consonant combinations that infants begin to produce at about 4 to 6 months of age
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Receptive Language
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That which the individual comprehends when listening to others' speech
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Productive Language
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That which the individual is capable of expressing in his or her own language
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Holophrase Period
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The period when the child's speech consists of one-word utterances
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Holophrase
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A single-word utterance that represents an entire sentence's worth of meaning
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Naming Explosion
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Term used to describe the dramatic increase in the pace at which infants acquire new words in the latter half of the second year; so named because many of the new words acquired are the names of objects
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Multimodal Motherese
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Older companion's use of information that is exaggerated and synchronized across two or more senses to call an infant's attention to the referent of a spoken word
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Referential Style
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Early linguistic style in which toddlers use language mainly to label objects
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Expressive Style
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Early linguistic style in which toddlers use language mainly to call attention to their own and others' feelings and to regulate social interactions
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Fast Mapping
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Process of acquiring a word after hearing it applied to its referent on a small number of occasions
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Overextension
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The young child's tendency to use relatively specific words to refer to a broader set of objects, actions, or events than adults do (e.g., using the word car to refer to all motor vehicles)
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Underextension
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The young child's tendency to use general words to refer to a smaller set of objects, actions, or events than adults do (e.g., using candy to refer only to mints)
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Processing Constraints
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Cognitive biases or tendencies that lead infants and toddlers to favor certain interpretations of the meaning of new words over other interpretations
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Object Scope Constraints
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The notion that young children will assume that a new word applied to an object refers to the whole object rather than to parts of the object or to object attributes (e.g., its color)
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Mutual Exclusivity Constraint
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Notion that young children will assume that each object has but one label and that different words refer to separate and non-overlapping categories
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Lexical Contrast Constraint
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Notion that young children make inferences about word meaning by contrasting new words with words they already know
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Syntactical Bootstrapping
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Notion that young children make inferences about the meaning of words by analyzing the way words are used in sentences and inferring whether they refer to objects (nouns), actions (verbs), or attributes (adjectives)
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Telegraphic Speech
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Early sentences that consist of content words and omit the less meaningful parts of speech, such as articles, prepositions, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs
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Grammatical Morphemes
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Prefixes, suffixes, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs that modify the meaning of words and sentences
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Overregulation
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The overgeneralization of grammatical rules to irregular cases where the rules do not apply (for example, saying mouses rather than mice)
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Transformational Grammar
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Rules of syntax that allow one to transform declarative statements into questions, negatives, imperatives, and other kinds of sentences
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Referential Communication Skills
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Abilities to generate clear verbal messages, to recognize when others' messages are unclear, and to clarify any unclear messages one transmits or receives
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Morphological Knowledge
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One's knowledge of the meaning of morphemes that make up words
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Metalinguistic Awareness
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A knowledge of language and its properties; an understanding that language can be used for purposes other than communicating
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Two-Way Bilingual Education
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Programs in which English-speaking (or other majority-language) children and children who have limited proficiency in that language are instructed half of the day in their primary language and the other half of the day in another language
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Self
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The combination of physical and psychological attributes that is unique to each individual
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Social Cognition
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Thinking people display about the thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors of themselves and other people
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Proprioceptive Feedback
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Sensory information from the muscles, tendons, and joints that helps one to locate the position of one's body (or body parts) in space
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Personal Agency
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Recognition that one can be the cause of an event
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Self-Concept
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One's perceptions of one's unique attributes or traits
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Self-Recognition
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The ability to recognize oneself in a mirror or a photograph
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Present Self
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Early self-representations in which 2- and 3-year-olds recognize current representations of self but are unaware that past self-representations or self-relevant events have implications for the present
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Extended Self
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More mature self-representation, emerging between ages 3.5 and 5 years, in which children are able to integrate past, current, and unknown future self-representations into a notion of a "self" that endures over time
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Categorical Self
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A person's classification of the self along socially significant dimensions such as age and sex
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False Self-Behavior
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Acting in ways that do not reflect one's true self or the "true me"
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Individualistic Society
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Society that values personalism and individual accomplishments, which often take precedence over group goals. These societies tend to emphasize ways in which individuals defer from each other
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Collectivist (or Communal) Society
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Society that values cooperative interdependence, social harmony, and adherence to group norms. These societies generally hold that the group's well-being is more important than that of the individual
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Self-Esteem
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One's evaluation of one's worth as a person based on an assessment of the qualities that make up the self-concept
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Relational Self-Worth
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Feelings of self-esteem within a particular relationship (e.g., with parents, with male classmates); may differ across relationship contexts
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Social Comparison
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The process of defining and evaluating the self by comparing oneself to other people
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Achievement Motivation
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A willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks and to meet high standards of accomplishment
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Mastery Motivation
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An inborn motive to explore, understand, and control one's environment
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Intrinsic Achievement Orientation
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A desire to achieve in order to satisfy one's personal needs for competence or mastery (as opposed to achieving for external incentives such as grades)
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Authoritative Parenting
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Flexible, democratic style of parenting in which warm, accepting parents provide guidance and control while allowing the child some say in deciding how best to meet challenges and obligations
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Achievement Attributions
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Causal explanations that one provides for his or her successes and failures
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Achievement Expectancies
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How well (or poorly) one expects to perform should he or she try to achieve a particular objective
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Incremental View of Ability
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Belief that one's ability can be improved through increased effort and practice
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Entity View of Ability
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Belief that one's ability is a highly stable trait that is not influenced much by effort or practice
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Mastery Orientation
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A tendency to persist at challenging tasks because of a belief that one has high ability and/or that earlier failures can be overcome by trying harder
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Learned-Helplessness Orientation
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A tendency to give up or to stop trying after failing because these failures have been attributed to a lack of ability that one can do little about
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Attribution Retraining
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Therapeutic intervention in which helpless children are persuaded to attribute failures to their lack of effort rather than a lack of ability
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Person Praise
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Praise focusing on desirable personality traits such as intelligence; this praise fosters performance goals in achievement contexts
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Performance Goal
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State of affairs in which one's primary objective in an achievement context is to display one's competencies (or to avoid looking incompetent)
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Process-Oriented Praise
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Praise of effort expended to formulate good ideas and effective problem-solving strategies; this praise fosters learning goals in achievement contexts
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Learning Goal
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State of affairs in which one's primary objective in an achievement context is to increase one's skills or abilities
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Identity
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A mature self-definition; a sense of who one is, where one is going in life, and how one fits into society
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Identity Crisis
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Erikson's term for the uncertainty and discomfort that adolescents experience when they become confused about their present and future roles in life
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Identity Diffusion
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Identity status characterizing individuals who are not questioning who they are and have not yet committed themselves to an identity
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Identity Foreclosure
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Identity status characterizing individuals who have prematurely committed themselves to occupations or ideologies without really thinking about these commitments
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Identity Moratorium
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Identity status characterizing individuals who are currently experiencing an identity crisis and are actively exploring occupational and ideological positions in which to invest themselves
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Identity Achievement
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Identity status characterizing individuals who have carefully considered identity issues and have made firm commitments to an occupation and ideologies
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Behavioral Comparisons Phase
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The tendency to form impressions of others by comparing and contrasting their overt behaviors
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Psychological Constructs Phase
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Tendency to base one's impressions of others on the stable traits these individuals are presumed to have
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Psychological Comparisons Phase
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Tendency to form impressions of others by comparing and contrasting these individuals on abstract psychological dimensions
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Role Taking
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The ability to assume another person's perspective and understand his or her thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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Sex
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A person's biological identity; his or her chromosomes, physical manifestations of identity, and hormonal influences
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Gender
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A person's social and cultural identity as male or female
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Gender Typing
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The process by which a child becomes aware of his or her gender and acquires motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for members of that sex
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Gender-Role Standard
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A behavior, value, or motive that members of a society consider more typical or appropriate for members of one sex
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Expressive Role
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A social prescription, usually directed towards females, that one should be cooperative, kind, nurturant, and sensitive to the needs of others
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Instrumental Role
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A social prescription, usually directed toward males, that one should be dominant, independent, assertive, competitive, and goal oriented
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Visual/Spatial Abilities
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The ability to mentally manipulate or otherwise draw inferences about pictorial information
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
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Phenomenon whereby people cause others to act in accordance with the expectations they have about those others
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Gender Identity
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One's awareness of one's gender and its implications
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Gender Intensification
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A magnification of sex differences early in adolescence; associated with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles
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Gender Segregation
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Children's tendency to associate with same-sex playmates and to think of the other sex as an out-group
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Social Roles Hypothesis
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The notion that psychological differences between the sexes and other gender-role stereotypes are created and maintained by differences in socially assigned roles that men and women play (rather than attributable to biologically evolved dispositions)
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Testicular Feminization Syndrome (TFS)
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A genetic anomaly in which a male fetus is insensitive to the effects of male sex hormones and will develop female external genitalia
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Timing of Puberty Effect
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The finding that people who reach puberty late perform better on visual/spatial tasks than those who mature early
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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
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A genetic anomaly that cause one's adrenal glands to produce unusually high levels of androgen from the prenatal period onward; often has masculinizing effects on female fetuses
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Androgenized Females
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Females who develop male external genitalia because of exposure to male sex hormones during the prenatal period
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Psychobiosocial Model
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Perspective on nature/nurture interactions specifying that some early experiences affect the organization of the brain, which in turn, influences one's responsiveness to similar experiences in the future
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Phallic Stage
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Freud's third stage of psychosexual development (from 3 to 6 years of age), in which children gratify the sex instinct by fondling their genitals and developing an incestuous desire for the parent of the other sex
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Identification
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Freud's term for the child's tendency to emulate another person, usually the same-sex parent
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Castration Anxiety
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In Freud's theory, a young boy's fear that his father will castrate him as punishment for his rivalrous conduct
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Oedipus Complex
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Freud's term for the conflict that 3- to 6- year old boys were said to experience when they develop an incestuous desire for their mothers and a jealous hostile rivalry with their fathers
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Electra Complex
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Female version of the Oedipus complex, in which a 3- to 6- year old girl was thought to envy her father for possessing a penis and would choose him as a sex object in the hope that he would share with her this valuable organ that she lacked
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Direct Tuition
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Teaching young children how to behave by reinforcing "appropriate" behaviors and by punishing inappropriate conduct
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Observational Learning
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Learning that results from observing the behavior of others
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Basic Gender Identity
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The stage of gender identity in which the child first labels the self as a boy or a girl
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Gender Stability
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The stage of gender identity in which the child recognizes that gender is stable over time
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Gender Consistency/Gender Constancy
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The stage of gender identity in which the child recognizes that a person's gender is invariant despite changes in the person's activities or appearance
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Gender Schemas
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Organized sets of beliefs and expectations about males and females that guide information processing
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"In-Group/Out-Group" Schema
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One's general knowledge of the mannerisms, roles, activities, and behaviors that characterize males and females
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Own-Sex Schema
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Detailed knowledge or plans of actions that enable a person to perform gender-consistent activities and to enact his or her gender role
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Androgyny
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A psychological identity that includes both masculine and feminine characteristics or traits
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Socialization
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The process by which children acquire the beliefs, values, and behaviors considered desirable or appropriate by their culture and subculture
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Acceptance/ Responsiveness
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A dimension of parenting that describes the amount of responsiveness and affection that a parent displays toward a child
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Demandingness/ Control
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A dimension of parenting that describes how restrictive and demanding parents are
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Authoritarian Parenting
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A restrictive pattern of parenting in which adults set many rules for their children, expect strict obedience, and rely on power rather than reason to elicit compliance
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Permissive Parenting
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A pattern of parenting in which otherwise accepting adults make few demands of their children rarely attempt to control their behavior
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Uninvolved Parenting
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A pattern of parenting that is both aloof (or even hostile) and overpermissive, almost as if parents neither cared about their children nor about what they may become
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Behavioral Control
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Attempts to regulate a child's or adolescent's conduct through firm discipline and monitoring of his or her conduct
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Psychological Control
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Attempts to regulate a child's or adolescent's conduct by such psychological tactics as withholding affection and/or inducing shame or guilt
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Peers
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Two or more persons who are operating at similar levels of behavioral complexity
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Sociability
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A person's willingness to engage others in social interaction and to seek their attention or approval
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Intersubjectivity
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The ability to share meaning, intentions, and goals with a social partner
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Nonsocial Activity
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Onlooker behavior and solitary play
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Onlooker Play
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Children linger around other children, watching them play, but making no attempts to join in the play
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Parallel Play
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Largely noninteractive play in which players are close in proximity but do not often attempt to influence each other
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Associative Play
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Form of social discourse in which children pursue their own interests but will swap toys or comment on each other's activities
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Cooperative Play
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True social play in which children cooperate or assume reciprocal roles while pursuing shared goals
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Peer Group
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A confederation of peers who interact regularly, that defines a sense of membership and formulates norms that specify how members are supposed to look, think, act
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Clique
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A small group of friends who interact frequently
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Crowds
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A large, reputationally based peer group made up of individuals and cliques that share similar norms, interests, and values
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Peer Acceptance
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A measure of a person's likeability (or dislikability) in the eyes of peers
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Sociometric Techniques
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Procedures that ask children to identify those peers whom they like or dislike or to rate peers for their desirability as companions; used to measure children's peer acceptance (or nonacceptance)
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Popular Children
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Children who are liked by many members of their peer group and disliked by very few
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Rejected Children
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Children who are disliked by many peers and liked by few
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Neglected Children
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Children who receive few nominations as either a liked or a disliked individual from members of their peer group
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Controversial Children
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Children who receive many nominations as liked and many as a disliked individual
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Average-Status Children
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Children who receive a average number of nominations as a liked and/or a disliked individual from members of their peer group
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Informal Curriculum
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Noncurricular objectives of schooling such as teaching children to cooperate, to respect authority, to obey rules, and to become good citizens
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Effective Schools
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Schools that are generally successful at achieving curricular and noncurricular objectives, regardless of the racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds of the student population
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Ability Tracking
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A school procedure in which students are grouped by IQ or academic achievement and then taught in classes made up of students of comparable "ability"
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Television Literacy
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One's ability to understand how information is conveyed in television programming and to interpret this information properly
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Mean-World Belief
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A belief, fostered by televised violence, that the world is a more dangerous and frightening place than is actually the case
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Desensitization Hypothesis
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The notion that people who watch a lot of media violence will become less aroused by aggression and more tolerant of violent and aggressive acts
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Obese
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A medical term describing individuals who are at least 20 percent about the ideal weight for their height, age, and sex
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Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
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Use of computers to teach new concepts and practice academic skills
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