Developmental Psych

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repeated urination in clothing or in bed

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enuresis

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physical skills htat involve the large muscles

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gross motor skills

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physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination

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fine motor skills

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Increasingly complete combinations of skills which permit a wider or more precise rand of movement and more control of the environment

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system of action

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preference for using a particular hand

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handedness

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play involving imaginary people and situations: also called fantasy play

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pretend play

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tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive

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animisn

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The second stage of Piaget’s cognitive development – ages 2-7.
Preschoolers are unable to engage in logical thought, but they are capable of symbolic thought. This combination allows both limitations and advances in cognitive thinking

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Preoperational Stage

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child’s ability to use mental representations. They attach meaning to words, numbers, or images. This has a direct impact on:
• Deferred Imitation
• Pretend Play
• Language

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 Symbolic Function

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when children are required to keep two symbolic functions separate, they have difficulty doing so - but this develops, and most toddlers can accomplish by age 3

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 Dual Representation Hypothesis

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he way preschoolers reason, tendency to link unrelated events as a cause and effect – they may think their “bad” behavior contributed to their parent’s divorce or their sister’s illness

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 Transduction

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children at this stage can understand that an identity is relatively stable and will not change with superficial alterations such as wearing a costume or getting a haircut. They are also able to classify objects into meaningful categories

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 Understanding Identities/Categories

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 Numbers – Five Principles of Counting

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a. The 1:1 Principle – say only one number for reach number counted
b. Stable Order Principle – say number names in their set order
c. Order-irrelevance Principle – counting can start with any number and proceed accordingly
d. Cardinality Principle – the last number named then represents the total items
e. Abstraction Principle – the above apply to all objects

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Piaget’s term to describe an awareness that two objects that begin as equal (in mass etc.) remain equal even when their appearance has changed. Preoperational children are incapable of this ability

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Limitations of Preoperational Thought
 Conservation –

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the tendency of preoperational children to focus on only one aspect of an object or situation and not pay attention to the others

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 Centration

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Piaget’s explanation of why some aspects of conservation exist before others – but this understanding does not transfer – For example the child the child may understand conservation in liquid, but not mass

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 Horizontal Décolage

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inability to take another person’s point of view. Piaget considered this to be an aspect of centration. To investigate, Piaget used the
Three Mountain Task – (Figure 7-3 page 252)

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 Egocentrism

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a child’s awareness and understanding of mental processes. This is a characteristic of later preoperational thought. Child begins to gradually understand that people have their own mental states – separate from their own.

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Theory of Mind

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an explanation preoperational children will use to explain events that otherwise are not explainable. Similar to adults who believe in astrology/horoscopes etc. Researchers propose that the child is aware of the pretend nature of the explanation, but are more willing to accept it as a plausible explanation (Film Clip)

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Magical Thinking

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another advance in cognitive abilities during the preoperational stage

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Language Development

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vocabulary expands rapidly so much so that by age 6 a child has a spoken word vocabulary of ~2600 words and understands more than 20,000!

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 Vocabulary

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the process by which children learn the meaning of a word by hearing it in conversation – and they only have to hear it once or twice . This is responsible for the major increase in vocabulary

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Fast Mapping

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the rules of grammar and syntax continue to improve and develop during this preoperational stage. A few errors continue, but by 5-7 language is adult-like

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 Grammar/Syntax –

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the practical knowledge of speech – includes knowing which tone of voice to use, how to ask appropriate questions, etc.

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Pragmatics

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speech which is intended to be received and used as a means of communication.

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Social Speech

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talking to oneself without any purpose to use speech as a means of communication it is talking aloud with no intended listener. This is normal and common in childhood
 20-50% of what 4- to 10-year-olds say
 2-3 year olds – it is referred to as Crib Talk - Playing with sounds and words
 4-5 year olds – it involves expressing fantasies and emotions
 Other children – “think out loud”

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 Private Speech

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a manifestation of egocentrism. Shows the extent that the child is unable to take another’s perspective

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Piaget

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a form of a conversation with self that helps the child adopt inner speech – thinking with their words

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Vygotsky

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used as a means of self-regulation and to control unwanted behaviors

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Berk (and others)

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anguage development beyond “typical” timelines. This occurs in about 3% of preschool-age children. May be due to:
 problems in fast mapping
 history of ear infection
 inherited trait
Many children catch up – especially if comprehension is normal – but it is important to address the issue because it can have far-reaching effects socially, cognitively and emotionally– early intervention!!

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Language Delays

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preschoolers’ development of skills, knowledge and attitudes that underlie reading and writing

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Emergent Literacy

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an important step in educational system. In 2001 64% of all 3 -5 year olds in US were enrolled in some type preschool type program

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Early Childhood Education (Preschool)–

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emphasis is to develop skills and attitude that promote group harmony in society – learning polite behaviors etc.

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Basic Types of Preschools
• Society - Centered

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stresses social and emotional growth of the child. The child chooses activities freely and interact with their teachers individually. One specific type is:

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• Child – Centered
Montessori Preschool - Founded by pediatrician / psychiatrist Maria Montessori in 1907 and emphasizes the need for each person to find meaningful work and his or her own place in the world.
Teachers — or "guides," as they are called — take their lead from each child, whom they believe will learn at his or her own pace. Montessori programs encourage a child's sense of independence: Children are always asked if they want to try a task, if they need help doing it, or if they feel they aren't ready..

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focus is on learning and preparing for future roles in society – these would include the basics of reading, writing, math etc. – more of an academic approach

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• Role – Centered –

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preschools developed to “compensate” for socioeconomic situations of some children and prepare them for school. Best known program in US is “Head Start”.

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Compensatory Preschool

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Goals of Head Start are to Improve the following:

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 Physical health
 Cognitive skills
 Self-confidence
 Relationships with others
 Social responsibility
 A sense of dignity & self-worth for child and family

Research shows these preschools are effective, but if these programs are discontinued, these effects diminish

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Today, kindergarten is more like 1st grade as more time is devoted in the curriculum to worksheets and pre-reading activities. It has been determined that a positive preschool-experience helps children transition easier to kindergarten

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Transitioning to Kindergarten (“Real School:”)-

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Other Factors Easing The Transition:

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– Prosocial child
– Cognitive maturity
– Supportive family background

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the answer one provides when answering
“who am I?” A sense of self which is both descriptive
and evaluative. It grows and changes throughout
childhood. It includes other’s opinions and
evaluations

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Self-Concept

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a cluster of characteristics used to
describe self

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Self-Definition

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Children go through 3 Steps/Stages as they begin to understand themselves:

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 Step 1: Single Representations  age 4. Child describes self in one dimension and cannot consider multiple aspects of self – only considers one at a time. You can’t be happy and scared!’ Cannot distinguish between real and ideal self

 Real Self – person/self one actually is
 Ideal Self – person/self one would like to be
Example: Describes self as “Great colorer”

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5-7 years. Child starts to make a connection between their abilities and likes and dislikes and a link to their future “I like to build, so I want to be an engineer”
Descriptions are still very positive and do not include areas in which they do not excel – They
express themselves in positive all-or- nothing terms

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 Step 2: Representational Mappings

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middle childhood. Child begins to integrate specific features of themselves and their capabilities into their self-concept. They begin to see multidimensional aspect of themselves
Example: I am good at math, but I am not good
at soccer.

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 Step 3: Representational Systems

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an affection reaction about oneself. How a person feels about themselves as a person – their overall worth. During early childhood, a child’s self-esteem is tied to the judgments adults make about them in their life. Parents often are very positive toward their children – thus their self-esteem reflects this attitude.
In early childhood children tend to provide self-esteem statements that are all-or-none:
“I am good Or I am bad

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Self-Esteem

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Children are unable to articulate self-esteem until around age 8, but their actions and behaviors do indicate they do have an overall assessment of their level of esteem earlier than that in life

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Developmental Changes in Self-Esteem

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If a child links success of any kind to self-esteem, any failure or any achievement will have a direct impact on self-esteem. Therefore, winning a prize will inflate the self-esteem, just as losing the prize will deflate it.
A healthier self-esteem is NOT contingent on 1 thing
Children with high self-esteem look to failure as a need to try harder and their parents give specific feedback and are not overly critical –
Example: “Remember the rule is to put your clothes into the clothes hamper” vs. “You are so forgetful and sloppy”

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Contingent Self-Esteem – the “Helpless” Pattern

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Family is central to the preschool child, thus their interpretation of emotions in others is dependent on their relationships within their family.
Securely attached children are better able to
understand emotions in others

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► Understanding Emotions in Others

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Emotions such as guilt, shame, pride etc. typically develop by age 3. For example - A child will experience guilt when they go against their parent’s wishes. However, they have not developed sufficiently to recognize these emotions and what makes them occur – thus allowing them some sort of control over them. This develops in time.

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► Emotions Toward Self

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Children in early childhood have difficulty understanding they can experience more than one emotion. Those children capable of this belong to families which discuss motivations in behaviors

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► Simultaneous Emotions

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Erikson’s Conflict of Early Childhood:

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conflict child feels between developing a sense of purpose and their desire to plan and carry out activities and the resulting guilt which can sometimes occur as the result some of these activities
The child feels conflict because of their desire to initiate and try new things and this requires having a sense of restraint as well

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Initiative vs. Guilt

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= Healthy Exploration and a sense that Initiating activities and ideas is a positive thing

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+ Resolution

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= Intense feelings of shame and guilt over interactions and new activities

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- Resolution

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The key is to learn to be responsible but at the same time enjoy life – not being plagued by guilt

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Parental Role can be one of providing a balance to allow the child to explore and try new things on their own, but do not set up to fail.

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an awareness that is developed in early childhood within society - that one is male or female. This has a direct impact on the child’s self-concept

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Gender Identity

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psychological or behavioral differences between males and females as opposed to the physical differences between them.
Overall, there are relatively few significant differences between boys and girls. As toddlers, boys and girls are equally likely to hit, bite, throw tantrums, or display “difficult” temperament.

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Gender Differences:

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However, this changes around age 4 when these behaviors tend to decrease in girls and increase in boys. This differences persists until adolescence. At that time – girls become more prone to anxiety and depression

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Gender Development - Influences of Nature and Nurture

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behaviors, interests, attitudes etc. that a culture accepts as acceptable for males and females

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 Gender Roles –

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a child’s acquisition of gender roles. The child learns what is expected of him/her based on the culture in which they live

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 Gender-Typing-

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exaggerated roles of males and females. These can be generalized preconceived ideas about male and female behavior

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 Gender Stereotypes

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Four Perspective on Gender Development (Table 8.1)

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Gender differences are biologically based due to hormonal influences, genetics and neurological influences etc.

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1) Biological Approach

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Theory developed by Sigmund Freud. Proposes that a child’s gender develops as the result of
Identification – child adopts the characteristics of same sex parent as a means of resolving their desire for their opposite sex parent

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2) Psychoanalytic Approach

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a) Cognitive Developmental (Kohlberg) – Children develop a sense of
Gender Constancy – a mindset when the child realizes their gender is constant and will not change.
The child makes a cognitive assessment once they have gender constancy of what it means to be either male or female. They then adopt the behaviors appropriate for their gender
b) Gender-Schema (Bem) – Child develops a schema of gender and once they realize which sex they are, they organize this information and then take on the behaviors/roles based on the behaviors they observe in their world.
The classify to the extent that society does. They take this schema with them into the world and assimilate and accommodate as necessary

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3) Cognitive Approach –

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Proposed by Albert Bandura and proposes that children learn their gender roles through socialization and observing models. These models are chosen if they are powerful or nurturing

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4) Socialization-Based

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an expansion of social-learning theory – proposes that children learn
appropriate gender roles through socialization

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Social Cognitive Theory

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Various Influences on Socialization:

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a) Family/Parents – Parents serve as models in their own behavior as well as their attitude. In households where males and females share domestic jobs, this is often observed in the child’s gender development
b) Peers – Friends serve as a powerful influence by the age of 3. This is seen in rewarding gender appropriate behavior and discouraging that which does not
c) Culture/Media – This includes such influences as television, books etc. The media in general tends to portray a more stereotypical view of gender. Therefore, those children who watch a great deal of TV tend to exhibit more stereotypical gender roles

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It is proposed that children learn through play. It is their “job”. It is not meaningless activity, but rather a vital part of development. Children learn about physical features and properties, but also gain social skills through their play. They interact with others and learn negotiating skills.

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play

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the lowest cognitive level of play. Involves repetition of muscular movements – jumping, throwing balls, etc.

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► Functional Play

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the second level of play. Involves use of objects or materials to make something – making a house of blocks, drawing etc.

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► Constructive Play

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the third level of play which involves imaginary people or situations – playing school house, etc.

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► Pretend Play – (AKA Fantasy Play, Dramatic Play)

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fourth cognitive level of play involving games with known procedures and penalties – hopscotch, marbles etc.

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► Formal Games with Rules

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Influences of Parenting

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Parents are one of the most influential forces in a child’s life. Parents’ interaction with the child and the method of discipline they employ can have a tremendous impact on the child.

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a method of teaching children self-control, right from wrong. Various types exist:

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Discipline –

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providing rewards for behaviors, these may be tangible, smiles, hugs, special attention etc.

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• Reinforcement

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providing a negative consequence for an undesirable behavior. This could include a loss of privilege, social isolation etc. A specific example:

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• Punishment

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use of physical force (such as spanking) in discipline. The intention is to cause pain, but not injure the child with the hope that the behavior will then stop

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Corporal Punishment

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discipline which capitalizes on the parent’s power over the child. The parent discourages unwanted behaviors through physical/verbal control. The parent has the power to take away privileges, threaten, spank etc.

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• Power Assertion

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discipline through reasoning, using logic and logical consequences. The parent explains their reasons, discusses with child and gets input from the child

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• Inductive Techniques

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discipline where a parent withdraws (temporarily) their love and affection. This includes ignoring the child, isolating them, or telling the child they dislike them

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• Withdrawal of Love

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Diana Baumrind studied parenting styles. She followed 95 families with 103 preschoolers. She conducted interviews, observations, home studies etc. Through her research she proposed parenting styles centering primarily around two parenting dimensions:

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 Parental Responsiveness- the degree to which the parent responds to the child’s needs in an accepting, supportive manner.
 Parental Demandingness - The degree to which the parent expects and demands mature, responsible behavior from the child.
From this research she proposes ThreeTypes of Parenting (a fourth was added later). Keeping in mind that one-fourth of the parents in Baumrind sample did not fit to any of the four styles and that in some ethnic minority groups, authoritarian parents may be more effective (in adverse conditions).

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very demanding and not responsive. They value obedience and control. They set absolutes for behavior and punish severely when rules are disobeyed. No exceptions. These parents are not very warm but very controlling

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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles:
 Authoritarian

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discontented, withdrawn, disruptive, do not know how to make choices, more dependent, passive, less socially adaptive, and less self-assured

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Children of this Style

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not demanding, but very responsive and very warm. Do not set any rules or limits. They are extremely involved in their child’s lives but in more of a friendship type of way. Parents see role as serving or helping their children

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 Permissive
 Indulgent

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immature, lack self-control and not very exploratory, more irresponsible, more conforming to peers, and less able for leadership

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Children of this Style

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not demanding and not warm or responsive. Their approach to parenthood is one of lack of interest. They make no demands because parenting is not important to them. The parent may be involved in drugs, alcohol, have depression, be self-involved etc.

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 Indifferent (Neglectful/Uninvolved – the 4th style added later)

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Children of this Style

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at risk for behavior problems, low self-esteem, more impulsive, delinquent, aggressive, more likely to involve in precocious sex, drugs, and alcohol.

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very demanding, but at the same time very warm and involvedThey try to direct their child rationally and with love. They pay attention to the issues at hand and exert firm control and explain their reasoning for their actions.

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 Authoritative

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Children of this Style –

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self-reliant, self-controlled, eager to explore, content, more psychologically competent, responsible, self-assured, adaptive, creative, intellectually curious, socially skilled, and academically successful.

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Authoritative ---------------- Competent
Parents --------------- Child

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Higher Education
Higher SES
Harmonious Marriages
Common Genes
Parenting is also influenced by the temperament of the child in addition to the parent’s philosophy.

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Prosocial behavior it is intended to help others with no potential gain for self. It often entails cost, self-sacrifice, or risk. A big factor in whether or not this is present in the preschool child is modeling by parents

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Parental Concerns:
 Promoting Altruism

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this may be a concern among preschoolers and parents, teachers want to minimize its occurrence

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 Reducing Aggression

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Types of Aggression:

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this is most common in early childhood. The aggressive act is done to achieve a goal and not necessarily to hurt someone

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Instrumental Aggression

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the behavior has the intent to hurt someone

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 Hostile Aggression

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irect physical force or overt threats are used

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 Overt Aggression

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Covert, indirect or psychological aggression. It may involve manipulation and threats

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 Relational Aggression

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 Dealing with Fears –

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passing fears are common in early childhood – most of which disappear in as the child gets older and loses their sense of powerlessness. Parents can aid in helping their children over come fears by instilling a sense of trust and normal caution without being over-protective.

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Child Abuse and Neglect

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• According to 2005 Statistics from US department of Health and Human Services. An estimated 899,000 children were victims of maltreatment
• The rate of victimization was 12.1 per 1,000 children in the population
• Nearly 3.6 million children received a CPS investigation or assessment.
• Children of all ages are abused and neglected, but those at greatest risk of death due to injuries is 0-3 population

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1920

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A pediatrician studying childhood injuries suggested that parents may have causes the injuries – reaction was very skeptical

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1961

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Dr. Kempe (pediatrician) described “Battered Child Syndrome”. Reaction was one of shock and disbelief that anyone would knowingly injure their own child
Many Misconceptions/Myths of Child Abuse
∞ Rare
∞ Fact – Although the actual number is unknown, it is known that child abuser cross all SES groups, races, etc.
∞ All parents who abuse are psychotic/criminal or something is wrong
∞ Fact – Child abusers do not have to have a psychiatric diagnosis to abuse their children

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injury to the body of the child – can include such things as beating, kicking, burning etc

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 Physical Abuse

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when a parent does not meet the child’s needs – these include things such as food, shelter, education, medical treatment, supervision etc.

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 Neglect

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any sexual activity involving a child and an older person

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 Sexual Abuse

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a type of abuse may cause behavioral, cognitive or emotional disorders and may rejection, terrorization, isolation, ridicule etc

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 Emotional Abuse/Maltreatment

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In cases of child abuse, the perpetrators are the parents, and usually the mother
Risk Factors Include:

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• Stress
• Parent’s own abuse as a child
• Alcohol/drug abuse
• Unemployment
• Problems in marriage
• Lack of knowledge about parenting
• Poverty/financial trouble
• Social isolation
• Depression

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Aggravated by Other Factors:

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 Criminal activity is rampant in community
 There are few community programs
 Violent crime is frequent in that country

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requires that certain individuals MUST report cases of suspected abuse. If these reports are made in good faith, the reporter is immune from criminal and civil liability and are often allowed anonymity

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• Mandated Reporter

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• Educators in all 50 states are Mandated Reporters

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Abuse Prevention Programs

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 Teach parenting skills
 Offer ‘respite homes’ and ‘relief parents’
 Investigate reports of maltreatment
 Provide shelters and therapy
 Facilitate foster care

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Long Term Effects of Child Abuse:

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 1/3 of adults abused as children victimize own children
 Sexually abused children grow up with:
 Lower self-esteem
 Greater risk of depression and anxiety
 Risk of precocious sexual behavior