Developmental - L13

Front 1

What is 'orthography'?

Back 1

The conventional spelling of a language

Front 2

Given that reading is a 'new' system/skill, why can we see heritability in individual differences in reading ability?

Give 3 examples of primary systems that have been 'hijacked' by reading.

Back 2

Reading is parasitic on more primary systems that evolved for reasons other than reading - e.g. visual perception, auditory perception, motor control, memory, speech and language systems

Front 3

What are the two aspects of reading?

Back 3

Decoding: allows us to deal with the mechanics of reading

Comprehension: allows us to refer to our world knowledge to help understand words

Front 4

What is the alphabetic principle?

Back 4

The fundamental insight that the 26 letters of the alphabet code language via sound

Front 5

What is phonological awareness?

Back 5

Awareness of, and access to, the phonology (sound-structure) of language

Front 6

What are the three types of studies used to provide evidence for phonological awareness reading links?

Back 6

1. cross-sectional studies

2. longitudinal studies

3. training studies

Front 7

Describe a cross-sectional study that shows the development of phonological segmentation abilities with age.

Back 7

Liberman and Shankweiler (1974)

4-6 year old children

Task 1: syllable segmentation

Task 2: phoneme segmentation

Results:

4 year olds succeeded in task 1 but failed task 2

5 year olds were better and 6 year olds were better still at task 2

Front 8

Describe a longitudinal study testing children on various aspects as potential predictors of future word recognition/reading ability.

Back 8

Muter et al., 2004

4 year old children tested again at 5 and 6.

Tested on:

1. phonological awareness

2. word recognition

3. letter knowledge

4. receptive vocabulary

5. grammatical awareness

Results: 1-3 at age 4 were predictive of reading ability at age 6

(4-5 were not predictive)

Front 9

Describe a training study testing whether phonological awareness is causally implicated in reading.

Back 9

Hatcher et al.,1994

7 year old children with reading disabilities

Experimental conditions:

1. PA training alone

2. Reading practice alone

3. PA and reading training combined

4. untreated controls

2 x 30minute sessions for 20 weeks

Results:

condition 3 lead to significant improvement in reading ability.

conditions 1 and 2 did not differ significantly from controls

Front 10

Describe Hatcher's second reading-intervention training study (2006) that contrasted 10 and 20 week training programmes

Back 10

5-6 year olds at risk of reading disabilities

20 weeks of training or

10 weeks waiting followed by 10 weeks training

Training: 20 minute daily intervention alternating between individual and small-group sessions.

Improvement of reading ability shown for both groups after intervention.

Front 11

What is the 'reciprocal model' of phonological awareness and reading?

Back 11

Improved PA leads to improved reading

Improved reading leads to improved PA

Front 12

What are the three stages of Frith's theory of learning to read?

Back 12

1. logographic stage

2. alphabetic stage

3. orthographic stage

Front 13

How is the logographic stage of Frith's model characterised?

Back 13

1. sight vocabulary of words recognised by overall appearance

2. no attending to individual letters

3. no ability to read unfamiliar words

Front 14

How is the alphabetic stage of Frith's model characterised?

Back 14

1. starts to attend to individual letters

2. learns to convert graphemes into phonemes using letter-to-sound rules

3. can pronounce regular unfamiliar words but not irregular unfamiliar words

Front 15

How is the orthographic stage of Frith's model characterised?

Back 15

1. develops an orthographic strategy

2. orthographic units converted to more complex sound-bytes

3. can pronounce irregular words if similar in structure to known words

4. novel irregular words tackled using grapheme-phoneme mapping

Front 16

Give an example of a study demonstrating young children's visual picture-like recognition of words.

Back 16

'Environmental print' - considerable alterations of spelling in familiar brand logos made no difference to young children's recognition abilities

"Smaller" read as "yellow" 'because of the two long sticks'

"Policeman" correctly identified from selection 'because its the long one'

Front 17

What are the three hallmarks of the alphabetic stage?

Back 17

1. successful non-word reading

2. regularisation errors

3. length effects

Front 18

Describe an experiment that suggests that the logographic and alphabetic stages may not be so clearly distinct from one another as Frith had thought.

Back 18

Rack et al., 1994

used 'logographic children' who couldn't read non-words

1. Taught children to associate consonant-only abbreviations with particular pronunciations

2. Abbreviations differed from the real words by either one phonetic feature (phonetic words: dbl-table) or two phonetic features (control words: kbl-table)

Prediction: if there was no awareness of individual letter importance, children should find the associations equally as easy to learn in both conditions

Results: 5 year olds were better at recognising the phonetic words than the control words

Front 19

What proportion of 10 year olds were able to read the word 'puscle' by analogy to 'muscle'

Back 19

only 39% - potential confound if the kids don't know the word muscle

Front 20

What is a rime unit?

Back 20

a combination of letters found at the end of a number of words with a fairly unambiguous pronunciation

Front 21

Describe Goswami's "clue word" paradigm

Back 21

Pre-test: read the four words

beak peak lake nose

Analogy test: "beak is your clue word, it may help you read these other words"

Results:

1. pre-test reading of the words was not hugely successful in 5 year olds (supposedly logographic)

2. the cue word significantly improved reading of the rime-matched word (peak) even in logographic children

Front 22

Outline Share's (1995) self-teaching hypothesis

Back 22

1. phonological skills are essential and fundamental

2. decoding skills allow translation of printed words into their spoken form

3. through this, word-specific orthographic information (and language statistics) can be gathered and used for efficient word recognition

Front 23

Give two possible objections to Goswami's findings from the clue-word paradigm suggesting that children can use analogy to read unfamiliar words before even reaching Frith's alphabetic stage.

Back 23

1. overestimation of spontaneous analogy use due to prescriptive and artificial conditions used in the experiment

2. we may be seeing simple phonological priming rather than genuine orthographic analogy

Front 24

Describe the effects of exposure and durability on orthographic Hebrew learning in 3rd grade learners found by Share (2004)

Back 24

1. reliable and equivalent learning following 1, 2 or 4 exposures

2. reliable and equivalent learning at 3-day, 7-day and 30-day post-tests in Hebrew

Front 25

Is orthographic learning via self-teaching easier when the words are learnt with some semantic context?

Back 25

No -Nation et al., 2007

8-9 year old children

Exposure phase:

- context: target words were inserted into

short stories 1, 2 or 4 times depending on the exposure conditions.

- no context: children had to sort cards into words and non-words, target words appeared 1, 2, or 4 times depending on exposure condition

Test phase:

children were asked which word they recognised from a list of the target, a homophone, and two orthographically and phonologically similar distractors.

Results:

There was a main effect of exposure but no main effect of context and no interactions.