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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Truman’s criteria for measuring underdevelopment
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inadequate food
disease primitive economic life poverty |
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Truman’s criteria for measuring development
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scientific advancement
industrial progress |
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NewIy Industrialized Countries
1. Definition 2. Examples 3. Criteria |
1. Emerged in 70's as a result of economic transformation, considered 'emerging markets'.
2. Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan (Asian Tigers) in 70's. Today, Mexico, India, Brazil, China 3. Manufactured goods must count as 30% of GDP Manufactured goods must be 50% of total exports There must be a shift in employment from agriculture to industry A per capita income of at least 2,000 USD. |
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Two Definitions of 4th World
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1. Poorest of the poor countries
2. Aboriginal peoples |
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Global South Definition
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Another term for developing countries, shows it is not just in one region
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Direct link between GDP and poverty levels
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Income Inequality
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Two ways to measure income inequality
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a comparison of the income earned by different strata of the population
This is done by dividing the population into five (quintiles) or ten (deciles) equally populous strata A standard comparison is between the earnings of the wealthiest 20 percent and the poorest 40% of the population the Gini coefficient Most common measure of income inequality It is a number between 0 and 1, relatively equal societies have a number closer to 0 and unequal societies closer to 1. Relatively equal societies Scandinavian countries: 0.25 Very unequal society Brazil: 0.6 |
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3 Reasons why income inequality exists in most developing countries
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Colonial rule created unequal society relations because of slavery, feudalism, and land ownership
Late industrialization meant that capital intensive technology reduced employment potential Inadequate social safety nets and regressive taxation systems prevented income redistribution |
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World Bank Absolute Poverty Definition
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Below the minimum level of income required for physical survival, or US 1.25 after PPP adjustment
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World Bank Moderate poverty
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Basic needs barely met, survival not threatened. 2 USD a day after PPP adjustment
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Relative poverty
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Poverty that doesn't threaten survival but prevents and individual from fully participating in his or her society. Example: an American who can't afford a internet access
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Definition of capabilities approach
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Real value of wealth and income is that they give more freedom to live the kind of lives we value. Poverty limits the ability of individuals to improve their lives. Theory of Amartya Sen
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How the Human Development index is measured
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Life expectancy at birth
Knowledge (literacy percentage Standard of living (GDP adjusted for PPP) |
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Definition of cosmopolitanism
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Belief that the principles of justice imply a moral obligation to address the needs of the poor outside of national boundaries. Justice is owed to everyone regardless of race, gender etc. and that common values apply across all humanity
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Definition of Libertarianism
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Low value to national boudaries but don't feel we have strong duties towards others on any level
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Three different types of justification for global redistribution and two arguments against
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Contractarian: we are responsible for the current situation because we reaped the benifits of colonialism, International aid is merely a way to give back what has been taken.
Rights-based: we have a duty to protect basic rights including the right to have basic needs met evne when global market isn't meeting them Consequentialism: We should always take an action that would prevent people from dying so long has we don't violate anything of greater moral value. against Communitarianism: politcal and social community is morally relevant. If we share a language or history we can help because we are involved in a common enterprise. Justifies treatment of citizens over foreigners Libertarian: individual freedom is most important,. right to retain private property. |
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Three types of Aid
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Classic Aid: i.e Christian NGO in Malawi. Dispenser and Receiver
Political Development aid: i.e missionaries bringing in message from outside or Castro spreading communism Military aid: peace needed before development work can occur |
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Two types of empires / colonialism
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Territorial Empire: Expensive but profits are higher
Hegemonic empire: held together by existing tribes and states, less profitable but more flexible. All African empires were hegemonic. |
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Definition of imperialism
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A political system by which colonies are ruled from a central seat of power in the pursuit of a largely if not entirely economic goals. Another meaning of imperialism casts it as an economic system instead of a political one in which a state pursues external investment
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5 Problems with the UN
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1) Member states have greater power
2) its very difficult to gain a consensus 3) UN is a big employer to short term contractual personel, who are incentivised to modify tasks to they can receive their next contract 4) real problems with operations 5) no alternatives |
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4 Purposes of the UN
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1. To maintain international peace and security
2. To develop friendly relations among nations 3. To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character 4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of common ends |
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Who are the top 3 donors to the UN budget?
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USA
Japan Germany |
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Definition of bilateral aid
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Money given from one government to another
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Definition of official development assistance
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25 percent grants, conditions of loans are very agreeable, and its administered to countries with economic development and welfare in mind.
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What is aid to non developing countries called
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Official assistance
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Describe some of the controversy around ODA
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-Critieria is too arbitrary
- Loan cancellations shoudln't be counted in the same way because they cause blips in data - ODA tied to diplomatic initiatives loses some of its sheen as well |
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Most countries that provide aid are in the ____ of the ____.
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DAC (Development Assistance Committee)
OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) |
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Countries in the DAC contribute what percentage of global ODA (official development assistance)?
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97%
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7 things that DAC ODA goes to
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Purchasing technology, building infrastructure, supporting policy reform, promoting agriculture and related techniques, promoting industry, promoting services, providing emergency assistance in cases of war and natural disasters
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Give the Historical aid trends in the last 4 decades (70's 80's 90's 00's)
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70's: increase in investments, optimism, introduction of UN's
0.7% goal 80's: slow economic growth in donors, economic crises in recipients, SAP's, loss of optimism and trust 1990's: similar 2000's: great increase, urgent need to fight poverty, introduction of MGDs (millennium development goals) |
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What is the 0.7% goal?
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The repeated UN goal of having countries give .7 percent of their GNP to development. Current one aims to achieve that by 2015.
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Give the characteristics of the following donors
1. France and the UK 2. The US and Canada 3. Sweden |
1. Mostly to former colonies
2. Where the have military presence 3. Africa |
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List the two main types of donor motivations and explain them
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1. Paternalism. Left leaning or religious, emergency related. Critique for its naiveté and ignoring national interests.
2. Self interest (tied aid, to achieve other foreign policy objectives |
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Give the 3 reasons why a country would have a non paternalistic interest in giving aid
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1. Diplomatic (assisting friendly countries, fighting communism during the cold war, promoting or supporting a politcal system that would be friendlier to the donor state.
2. Commercial (sale of donor goods or services, to facilitate trade interests, or tied aid which is ODA conditional on the purchase of goods from the donor country) . 3. Security (rewarding countries who fight against terrorism (i.e the US with Pakistan), getting better relations during an occupation) |
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5 reasons why the British Department for International Development is efficient and should be a model for other countries.
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1. Its projects are based on concrete evidence not ideology
2. It has strong in-house expertise, but also consults externally 3. It resists short-term commercial pressures and opts for long-term benefits instead 4. It has the monopoly on British aid 5. It has a strong presence in the cabinet, and is supported by the prime minister and the finance minister. |
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Arguments for funding the poorest vs. arguments for funding those with sold structures in place.
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Poorest: Neglecting them could require costlier projects later on, and that they need help building up required structures. Argue that middle income countries will grow on their own, aren't 'stuck' in an undeveloped phase.
*Other side argues that aid is wasted in developing low-income countries |
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Arguments for funding governments vs. funding NGO's
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Governments: governments will let aid flow to the private sector, and that funding NGO's undermines states and deprives it of necessary resources, undermining states could harm rule of law, stability, and thus long term development.
NGO's: NGO's are more likely to be working in communities, and thus serving the needs of the people better *(what?)*. Funding governments will just grow bureaucracies and lead to theft by corruption. |
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Arguments for transparent initiatives and against
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For: they would eliminate duplicate programs and simplify reporting structures
Against: Not a good idea to put all your eggs in one basket, requires to much administration in the recipient country, and it ignores corruption. |
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What was the purpose of the Bretton Woods conference?
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To create an international economic system, because flexibile exchange rates during the 30's meant countries would devalue their currency in response to economic crises, hurting other economies
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What was the result of the Bretton Woods conference?
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US got their way because of their economic and military power. Each currency pegged at US dollar with a fixed exchange rate. IMF was set up to oversee the workings of the system.
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What was the purpose of the IMF and how did it function?
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To stabilize currency. Each member paid a quota to the IMF based on its economies size. During economic crisis, a country could draw reserves from the pool to pay its debts, allowing it to stabilize the economy without devaluing, thus stabilizing currency.
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What was / is the purpose of the World Bank (formerly the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
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Indented to make loans to countries at good rates that were hurt during the war. Role was diminished with Marshall plan but decolonization gave it a new cliental, so the WB began to finance underdeveloped countries through state organized development projects. Acts as an intermediary between private institutions and governments. International Development Agency provides loans to countries that cant me criteria. Interest free over long periods.
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What is the structure of the World Bank
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Voting rights are awarded based on an economies size, unlike UN
Voting power translates to direct representation and board meetings 24 seats on the board which are overrepresented by the west for the above reasons US and EU have unilateral power to choose the president, became and issue when W wanted Wolfowitz despite opposition from developing countries, the EU and the bank. The US got its way. US has a lot of power historically with the WB. |
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What is the modern purpose of the IMF, and what key policy change did it undergo.
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After the US ditched the Bretton Woods system, IMF switched to a lender of last resort. Began recommending devaluation as a means of strengthening export sectors. Began strengthening export sectors.
Began to expand conditions attached to its loans. As more contries needed loans, IMF created austerity, which hurt the poorest. |
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3 immediate, 4 medium term and 3 long term goals of the SAP's
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Immediate
Liberalization Currency devaluation Fiscal discipline medium trade liberalization derugulation of markets privatization private sector takeover of public sector (i.e healthcare, education) long term economic growth debt repayment re-establishment of the integrity of the international credit system |
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What was the result of the SAP's
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Burden was passed down to the poorest. Unemployment rose and so did the cost of goods. Famine in Ghana and other countries. Did not deliver stable growth or poverty reduction
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What did the WB give as the reason for the failure of the SAP's and what was their response?
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Bad government (rent seeking, bureaucratic obstruction, weak judicial systems and arbitrary decision making).
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What are Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers?
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The 21st century remodelling of SAP's.
Countries are in the driving seat when it comes to goals. New approach to poverty as voicelessness but approach remains market driven. |
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Does Japan dispense its aid efficiently? Why?
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No. Because most of it goes to low-middle income countries
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Describe the OECD
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UN without the poor countries
Biggest economic players does not fund or implement directly, instead organizes policies |
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Describe the pattern of AID from 1960 to 2005
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Lots of fluctuation
large jump in 05 because of debt releasing trend is upwards, adjusted for inflation |
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What is the official definition of ODA?
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Flows of official financing administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as the main objective, and which are concessional in character with a grant element of at least 25 percent (using a fixed 10 percent rate of discount). By convention, ODA flows comprise contributions of donor government agencies, at all levels, to developing countries (“bilateral ODA”) and to multilateral institutions. ODA receipts comprise disbursements by bilateral donors and multilateral institutions.
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6 Criticisms of ODA
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1) Quantity vs. Quality(is the money wasted?)
2) tied aid (sometimes justified, like in an emergency where its mandated that the aid go towards food, but can stimulate the economies of the rich countries more than the poor countries. Can sometimes mandate that when possible, a state must buy from the donor state, which can be expensive because stuff from donor states is normally more expensive (do to higher wages). 3) Does it have development friendly policies at origins? Example: Canada funded MNC bauxite production in Brazil, which hurt bauxite production in Jamaica. Canada just hurt Jamaica and wasted money. 4 Development-friendly policies at destination *what does this mean??? [Ex. Not having a rich dictator who is stealing the money]* 5) Management (important political factor, is too much money wasted on management? Does it cost to much to implement 6) self-serving bureaucracy (corruption, personal interests, etc.) |
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What is the commitment to development index and what are the 7 factors that go into it
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It ranks the worlds richest countries on their policies that benefit the poor. It came from the millennium goals.
Factors: 1) Aid (punishes tied aid) 2) Trade (punishes barriers to imports like crops from poor countries) 3) Investment 4) Migration 5) Environment 6) Security 7)Technology |
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Is aid charity? Why?
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Because its given by the donors to improve their influence, their markets, and aid is often given with conditions
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What kind of aid do we want?
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sustainable aid that protects vulnerable people and emergency aid
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Describe conventional trade in cocoa
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1) Farmers in rural areas don't have savings to invest in farm or pay for children or health care needs of their families. They are severly affected by the instability caused by price fluctions in cocoa prices, are vulnerable to natural distasters and have no excess of crop insurance, and 3) are dominated by local buyers who have a monopoly on the region, who are also often providers of high interest credit.
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Describe fair trade
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Farmers are paid a fair price, premiums of fair trade are invested in community development projects, farmer owned co-opts are are supported, access to pre harvest credit, long term business relationships.
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What is a fair trade co-opt and why are they good
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Co-opt is a group of farmers who pool their resources. Allows for greater risk taking. Allows for safety, less variation in income, collectively defined common best interest will outweigh the individual profit motive
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The three types of UN organizations
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Specialized agencies
i.e WB and IMF funds paid by governments capacity to pay UN organs direct arms answerable to General Assembly (GA) funding through voluntary contributions agencies peacekeeping and hunanitarian action directly supervised by secretary generals office pg. 173 HSB for a flow chart |
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What does the WHO do?
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Promote all-round physical, mental, and social well-being
Sets standards for health practices and biological and pharmaceutical products |
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What are the 2 criticisms of the WHO?
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Lack of transparency
willing to accommodate big pharma companies |
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What is UNICEF
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UN agency that focuses on child survival and development through community=-based and national programs for preventative health, nutrition and education
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Why has development helped the poor so little?
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Not foreign exploiters or or domestic capitalists, rather a concentration of resources on urban development and away from agriculture (despite it being very efficient).
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Describe Urban Bias
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Governments are more likely to favor urban areas. They will spend money on motorways instead of water pumps, use design skills to host boxing championships instead of designing villages. Resource allocation reflects urban priority rather than equity or efficiency.
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Three reasons why the concentration on urban enrichment is inequitable
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1) Rural people are poorer, bottom 40 percent are overwhelmingly rural.
2) Resources that help the urban and promote their economy only 'trickle down' to rich farmers, because poor farmers are subsistence farmers, eat their crops and don't benefit from increased demand. 3) Resources are more likely to go to resident elites because of political inequality within towns. |
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4 types of risks that peasants face in agriculture
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1) Loss of harvest due to unforeseen weather conditions or pests
2) Loss of control over land, owner takes back rented or sharecropped land 3) Low return on labour (annual crops require much higher labour imput than perennials 4) Excessive income fluctuations (lots of money at harvest, very little at other times) |
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8 strategies to deal with agriculture risk for peasants
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1) Don't overspecialize and diversify production. Don't have only one plot of land but many that can handle different conditions. Try to produce different kinds of crops if possible.
2) Use intercropping, it diversifies risk, uses different nurtrients so plants grow better, protects plants, spreads maturation cycles. 3) Develop environment i.e if on a hillside, try to create ridges 4) Develop networks of support 5) Diversify tenure status of land parcels 6. Constituent non-bank savings (money under bed can get stolen, bank access is unlikely, instead, try to invest money in animals 7) Diversify income source outside of agriculture (women sell cooked food, men repair bikes, etc.) 8) Establish migration networks (disproportionate female jobs in cities, send family to cities who have regular income who can send money in times of need) |
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What are terraces, what do they do, and what conditions are needed for them to exist.
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Terraces are ridges built on a hillside. They reduce soil erosion, retain soil moisture, remove surface runoff without erosion, create level land which helps for farming, control sediment loss, reduce peak (what's that) runoff rats, and improve water quality.
Strong instituional support is needed because they can cost millions, there needs to be clear regulation of ownership issues, meticulous maintanence because all the walls need to be solid (water is strong), a legitimate share of benefits (heavy sanctions?) and regular short term economic benefits to keep farmers afloat. |
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What are problems with the modern coffee tree?
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They need more pesticides, herbicides and water
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Describe the income inequality violence relationship
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Income inequality increases the probability of domestic political violence (gorilla movements, uprisings, and civil wars). That violence causes destruction of property, loss of life, which harms economic growth. Its a vicious cycle.
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Describe the two main hypothesis of Muller and Seligson in regards to violence and inequality
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1) Poor land distribution leads to violence by creating more insurgency groups and thus creating more chance for revolution
the theory is rejected by resource advocates, who argue that all societies have discontent, and that they key factor is the ability to organize that discontent into something that is powerful, i.e making discontent more than the sum of its parts. For example, Russian, French, Chinese revolutions happened because local landlords enabled them to mobilize collectively and effectively. 2) High income inequality leads of violence. the first round of dissidents will be urbanites who end up collaborating with the peasants. High agrarian income inequality is not as important because it is difficult to mobilize people in the countryside. Peasants are the foot soldiers of revolutions organized by a vanguard of urban professional revolutionaries. |
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3 variables that regime structures change when it comes to political violence
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How groups can mobilize and develop strong organizations
range of opportunities for groups to achieve their goals Their belief in a likelihood of success, less violent groups because they believe that collective action will have a chance to succeed. Democratic regime structures provide several means to achieve goal. |
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4 enduring features of rurality
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1. Relative abundance of natural capital (land, water, soil, trees, wildlife, etc.) and thus a dependance on and vulnerability to elements of the natural environment (drought, pests, etc.).
2. Relative abundance of labour, structured around gender and age, best labourers may migrate seasonally, hurting production at bottleneck times (harvest, planting ,etc.) 3. Relative Isolation that becomes a relatively high cost of movement and limited ability to participate in national politics. 4) relative importance of social factors that can be as or more im[port than market based strctures, i.e land tenure regimes, reciprocity of social networks (religion, kinship) and obligations in hierarchical relationships (elders, younger, men and women, natives and migrants) |
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Compare rural development in Japan to rural development in the US
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Japan: intensification, with limited land, lots of labour. grew through rural intensification (increasing output by increasing input of labour, capital knowledge, technology). Created small urban centres, which lowered inequality. Success mattered on leadership and collaboration.
In the US, extensification took place instead took place. Extensification means expanding the areas that were cultivated. Lots of land meant fertilizers were not used, isntead, just put to use new land. Agriculutre policy was about opening up 'virgin' land. |
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Is Africa more likely to undergo rural intensification or extrication? Why? What is the significance of this?
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Africa is more likely to undergo extrication (like the US). Its agricultural sector should continue to dominate over the industrial one, high urban concentration on coast for better shipping
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6 water issues
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1) quantity and regularity of supply (important so that farmers can make appropriate plans)
2) quality 3) control of access 4) Downstream effects (pollution, regularity, etc.) 5) Security downstream (sharecropping diversifies the risk) 6) Institutional regulation, support, enforcement |
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What was wrong with the play pump?
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It would take children 27 hours a day to get the water
The pumps tended to break dopwn, expensive to get parts especially if the contract with the firm didn't work out When children wen to school the women had to turn the wheel Less efficient than a normal pump Harder to pump water than a normal pump Cost 4 times as much (14,000 $ US) |
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Discuss the Innovative Contract
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An unequal distrubution of land meant that most farmers were very poor, had land on the hills. They cut down the trees there, which caused soil erosion and reduced the fertility of both the hillside land and the valley below. Weak institutions prevented investing in terraces to improve the land.
The innovative contract: large landowners lent one third of their good land for free to the small peasants for 7 years the peasants moved down, reforested the hillsides An NGO hires the peasants to build an irrigation system to serve all land in the valley bottom, if it works after 7 years, the peasants keep the land, the large landowners are happy with that because they now have irrigation which makes up for the lost land. Cost / benifit Large farmers: irrigation triples the harvest and land values peasants: new land is better. Opportunity costs are covered by emloyment and irrigation work. NGO: costly but lwo risk, gives short and medium term benefits for the community and environment |
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Why was the Innovative contract successful in this case
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Correct assessment of the root causes of the environmental tragedy
direct short term benefits to all the actors anticipation and correction of negative effects of irrigation NGO had long term goals |
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What is a threshold?
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The minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service
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What is a range?
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The maximum distance consumers are willing to travel to purchases a good before the cost of travel exceeds the cost of not having the good.
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what is the informal sector?
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the informal sector is unprotected, no contracts, normal isntitutions arent involved. However people aren't always poor just because they work in the informal sector.
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What are the four functions of central places
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Marketing
Administration Symbolic Representation Strategy and Security |
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What are the characteristics of a low-order central place
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In an agricultural region, with banks, an administrative center, educational institutions, and health services
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What is the difference between a mid-order central place and a low order central place
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A mid order central place has institutions that correspond ot a more diversified economy and a more significant presence of the state
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The 5 problems of housing in Sao Paulo
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Inadequate housing and services (40 percent in shanty towns)
2. Shanty town services are non-existent and lead to a low standard of living. Most import is draining services 3. Collapsing Infrastructure 4. Increased levels of pollution 5. Increased traffic on poor roads |
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What is self help rehabilitation
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Self help schemes give people the rights of ownership. Provide house owners with material to fulfill some basic standards. This is better than nothing but doesn't solve underlying issues
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Pros / Cons of High-Rise Housing Developments
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Pros
Some standards can be implemented (i.e every apartment has a kitchen, toilet, proper piping etc.) Good when buildings are constructed before slum clearence Essentially ok for housing middle or lower class people People who have the necessary voting rights / political connections to maintain a job |
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What is the sites and services project
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project 40 years ago where government gave people land, some funds for supplies, and let people build there own homes.
This gives the state some control as opposed to a slum businesses are built here as well The problem is that land can be very far away from downtown, the government might not provide srevices afterards (major problem), and politcally high rise projects look way better |
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What is the conventional apporach to a slum free city
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List and register all slums and slum residents, provide basic services (a right), plan for future need of land and resources, and when relocating consider livelihood security
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What is the problem with a home that solely acts as a shelter?
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The poor can't afford this, they also need a home that can be used as a business
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What progressive additions have been made to the Conventional approach for housing?
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Justice and equity
Gender equality Single women with children have often been affected most Those who are weakest are the ones who don’t get the resources, or are even victimized when distribution is taking place Community participation Cannot have group projects without participation Has to be true participation -> must involve real power; poor who have no money must have a say in how money is allocated Enhanced security of tenure Decentralization Cities are great centralizing forces; attract people/provide jobs Has to involve a real shift of resources Networking across departments and programs |
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What are the 6 priorities of poor people?
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Food
Employment Water Proximity to multiple sources of employment Security Improved shelter |
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Is inequality a constraint to economic growth?
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It was found to be in a survey of 74 developing countries, where it was shown to have a substantial constraint on growth. In East Asia, low inequality coexisted with rapid growth while the opposite occurred in Latin America.
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Discuss education in Latin America vs. it in East Asia
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In East Asia, there is very high attendance. in Latin America, there is very low attendance, with the poor the least likely to attend, thus perpetuating income inequality. Increased enrolment in LA schools has just hurt education because class sizes skyrocketed
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How does education lead to growth?
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It improves the skills of individuals and the productivity of workers, and thus translates to higher economic growth on the national level. Educating girls lowers fertility, puts less strain on the system
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3 ways that educating girls is positive
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Increases their productivity
improves gender equality decreases their fertility |
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What is the vicious cycle of education in Latin America
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Parents can't afford to send their kids to school, so those kids don't get the skills to succeed and escape poverty later in life.
Vicious circle in LA: the low rate of educated workers decreases productivity levels and inhibits economic growth. This slower growth, combined with high income inequality, limits the supply of, demand for, and quality of the public education system. The poor do not have the means to obtain a good education under this system, and this merely perpetuates the low rate of educated workers in society. |
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Outline the Utilitarian and Transformative perspectives on education
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Utilitarian perspective: Education is seen as a social investment to ensure that future generations can become productive citizens in established socio-economic order. Implicitly, a key function of education is to legitimate a long-standing view of development as primarily and economic phenomenon (taking place in circumstances of political/social stability. Education is a competitive process with direct implications for the financial security and social status of individuals and families within the context of established political economies. This perspective is widely supported by governments and international aid agencies.
Transformative perspective: Education and political systems are not equitable and often favour the powerful and wealthy to the disadvantage of poor and politically marginalized social groups – structural inequality. Critics argue that the (above) utilitarian view must be complemented with an alternative perspective that conceives the main purpose of education as addressing the inequalities and injustices imbedded in larger society. Education should be a force for liberation, encouraging learners to see the world in a critical light, and acquire skills necessary for creating social change in the future. Counter-hegemonic view highlighting education’s role in empowering marginalized social groups to challenge unequal social structures. |
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Compare and Contrast Brasilia and Curitiba
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Brasilia
People were supposed to live in apartment blocks, but construction workers and non government officials lived in surrounding areas. Became a clean city surrounded by favelas, so greater segregation in an inegalitarian society. No economic growth A dynamic nation can build a monument Govt takes care of its own (Brasilia is very well off) Top-down planning leads to strengthened hierarchy (decision-makers that make things happen) Cities are producers of inequality To produce a more inclusive, egalitarian city would take both a different govt and a different planning process. Curitiba Transportation by buses (efficient) Enormous network of parks (increase value of surrounding areas) Use sheep to maintain grass There are still slums in Curitiba Lerner came up with “equation of coresponsibility” Govt provides food to those in slums if they clean up the slums and sell the garbage to the govt) People in illegal settlements get relocated to other suburb areas after govt reclaims the land Urban planning that looks at the people’s needs first in Curitiba Planning was not for national prestige (like Brasilia was) Approach to poverty One key variable is employment In Curitiba, poor are given employment of collecting garbage to sell to the govt Govt encourages the poor to collect garbage for money Takes care of the garbage in the city Unusable areas were transformed into parks in Curitiba In other areas, people live in these areas that get wet from floods and foster spread of disease. “Housing by People” Approach for those in illegal settlements |
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What is the difference between gross and net enrolment
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Gross = every kid in school
Net = only count kids who are at the appropriate level. Harder to find but more important. |
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What are educational leakages?
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Money filtered out of the system that doesn't reach schools
Money filtered out in the system that doesn’t reach schools How does this happen? Urban-bias shown in inappropriate assignments (implicit theft) Urban: 20 kids with 3 teachers, where 2 teachers do nothing while cashing cheques Student teacher ratios are much better than rural Absenteeism (theft) Ghost workers (workers who cash in cheques, but don’t exist) |
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Private vs Social Costs and Benefits of Education
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Social costs are high (education systems have huge money involved)
System does not stop easily Private costs are always there, (uniforms, books) Direct costs vs opportunity costs (high- kids have economic value) Social benefits are higher in primary schooling Private benefits are higher in secondary and higher education |
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What is the single best investment in poor countries and why?
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GIRLS EDUCATION
Why? Immediate Effects Later marriages Later birth of children (child-bearing) -> fewer children Disciplined activity (ordered routine, makes people more productive) Learning content (train women to learn what is helpful to know- Ex, nutrition) |
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4 things we need to thing about when building education
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must leave our ideologies behind
practical thinking cannot ignore disastrous implements and issues cannot have an apparatus for an institution (ex. scholarship, girl education) by itself, must monitor all evaluation and must be an intricate part of education |
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Discuss the Haiti school reform
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universal access
preached by UNESCO free education in public schools national curriculum for all, including private schools mother tongue instruction preached by UNESCO important topic in West African countries Creole instruction in Haiti, took years to prepare modernization of the system according to best practices learned elsewhere international financing not by the state, but by foreign agencies which handed money to the state lots of money contributed (French, American, Canadian, IMF, World Bank, etc) overall performance in reformed schools was significantly worse than in traditional schools urban students did better than rural students students in religious schools did better than student in lay (not professional) schools by gr.6 the difference in French competency, though still favoring traditional schools, was not large |
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Why does the WB underestimate rural education rates
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based on official statistics for which nobody takes responsibilty
faulty population estimates private schools frequently omitted unquestioned repeition of old data incentive to submit low estimates on both individual and institutional levels |
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Why has school enrolment increased in haiti
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1) urbanization
2) parents valuing education 3) school feeding 4) foreign donors ex) religious organizations, WB, etc 5) remittances |
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School quality issues
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number and quality of teachers
class size curriculum textbooks and lesson guides children without textbooks are condemned, they will not graduate nor learn other supplies ex) pencils, erasers, etc adequate buildings furniture Educational access issues: inadequate numbers of school inadequate school mapping urban bias in transport ethinic discrimination cost cultural preferences of decision makers |
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What is the principle problem of primary education in Haiti
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school quality not access
zero pedagogical value exploitation of resources of parents and their children low efficiency of bad schools 23 pupil years to produce one primary school graduate institutionalization of failure at both the indiviaul and the school levels low return on large investment in human capital |
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6 Stages of demographic transition
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(see graph)
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What does the Preston curve show
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vertical axis = life expectancy
horizontal = country's GDP PPP adjusted |
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What is the reason for the correlation of health and wealth
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1) The first explanation is that national wealth improves provision of and access to health care, both preventative and treatment. It focuses on the advantages of higher national economic status. The richer the country the more it can spend on health- 100 fold increase in annual health spending per capita.
2) The second explanation emphasises social determinants of health. It focuses on the effects of individual poverty. The wider socio-economic conditions under which people live and work affect their opportunities to live healthy lives. eg malnutrition, work practices etc. This is called the socio-economic gradient. Note also that this also applies within countries: domestic variations in socio-economic status determine health. (e.g. Montreal’s poorest 29 health districts has 13 years(!) lower life expectancy than the richer districts) (NOTE: THE TEXTBOOK EMPHASISES THIS EXPLANATION. THIS EXLANATION CALLS FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC POVERTY REDUCTION SOLUTIONS RATHER THAN NATIONAL ECONOMIC GROWTH) These two explanations are mutually compatible, as (1) access to health care often coincides with (2) social determinants. |
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5 key players in health
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The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a UN agency with 193 member-states that meet annually as the World Health Assembly (WHA). Generally very underfunded, relies on voluntary contributions from member states.
The World Bank and IMF are larger and richer, and emerged as more decisive players in development policy (with direct and indirect health consequences) The World Bank’s importance is as a source of financing, and created the Health, Nutrition and Population (HNP) department. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is important as it grants the seal of approval for the soundness of national macroeconomic and social policy, which determines private investment. Both the World Bank and the IMF demand a relatively standard package of economic policies designed to ensure debt service repayments. Poverty Reduction Strategy papers (PRSPs) incorporate macroeconomic conditionalities (which, similar to structural adjustment programs (SAP’s), can worsen socio-economic conditions and thus deteriorate health status) There are two broader negative health impacts of World Bank and IMF neo-liberal health policies: 1) Promotion of market-orientated health sector reform (e.g. user charges, privatisation of (non-free) health care, decentralisation of health services) 2) IMF promotes public sector wage bill ceilings, which prevents governments from hiring badly needed health personnel, even if they have the funds available. The Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (The Global Fund) is a foundation established in 2001 as a multilateral partnership by G-8 countries and is industrialised-government funded. Its projects must be proposed by recipient-country governments and be approved by a scientific review panel. Contended criticism is that is focuses on disease specific programs over integrated primary health care, but the MAJOR problem is that it is severely underfunded. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation symbolises the shift towards private financing of health and development (i.e. the foundation spends more annually than even the WHO). Question of how efficiently money is spent (eg it promotes a biomedical approach (investing in research for new technology) versus socio-economic approaches to health solutions.) |
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7 reasons why migration is increasing
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Growing disparities: human development index had shown that most developing countries have been unprecedented reversals result in development.
Lack of development- growing population pressure. 5billion people/80% of world’s population lives in poverty. Higher proportion of population growth in the developing countries, higher proportion of young people need to be absorbed into the labour market or migrate somewhere else to find work. Through Migration, people can protect themselves and their families from weak economy, fragile market and political crisis. The global job crisis: disparities in unemployment between developed and developing countries. In developing countries, unemployment has increased or remained at a stable high level. Employment in informal sector is unstable while jobs in formal sector pay wages that is barely sufficient for survival. Rural population in the developing countries are under pressure because their livelihood depends on agriculture, yet their lives are threaten by disproportional taxation, environmental degradation and commercial expansion. Increase rural-urban migration: wide gap in income between farming and non-farming activities. The segmentation of labour markets in high-income economies: lower paying, low status and low security jobs have become dominate by migrant workers as they are the people willing to work in insecure conditions and for low wages. The communication and transportation revolutions: easier and faster communication is a central element of the globalization process. Communication revolutions make people more aware of the disparities and the opportunities to move and work abroad. Transportation revolution makes migration more feasible. -still a huge gap between rich and poor countries in communication and transportation. Migration networks: reasons of increasing migrations-already established family/friends abroad. They provide info, finance trips and help with settling. New rights and entitlements: allow people to cross borders more easily. Eg.EU but increase administrative process and restriction on immigration. Increase in ‘irregular’ migration (undocumented/unauthorized) worldwide. Migration industry: wide range of individuals a |
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What do remittances do and what they?
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Remittances: money sent home by migrants abroad. Informal remittances(not through banks etc) remittances amount to 3X the value of donations in developing countries. Benefit receiver directly:often the poorest in society. Lift ppl out of poverty. Provide insurance and diversify income. Can increase gap within household of a community. Disincentive for ppl to work at home. Create culture of migration, increase regional disparities.
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3 facts about refugees
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Refugee and development: assumption refugee has negative impact on host country. Tension between local community and refugees because they receive aid and sometimes undercut the wage rates of local ppl: competition.
Positive attitude of host govt and relatively few refugees involved:”integrated zonal developments” create positive impact. Return of refugee for development at home: significant obstacles- reintegration of returnees and ppl who never left,and physical problems(housing destruction etc). Small numbers wants to stay in richer country and send home remittances to help development. |
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5 facts about indigenous populations in practice
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Are under domination
Have few or no rights or access to their own natural resources Are a political minority that is often not recognized as such Are exploited economically by neighboring societies Are culturally dominated |
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Reasons why Juan XXIII is working
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Origin
This is not something brought in by a bureaucrat, this is the local population who fought for it and won Vision Banner said: “Health is a problem of democracy” Orientation to egalitarian health Health is a right Strategic Focus They seek promotion of health in a wider context Social justice, better economic status Composition of networks Walk around the neighbourhood talking to teachers, priests, etc. Talk to existing local organizations getting them interested in the project This does not mean professionals, you mobilize the interest for health among people who are distinctly not health professionals Partnerships Other people than the local government Quality of service There was no compromise for quality of service Those from the university made sure things were done right |
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Three Hypotheses for healthcare
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H1: hierarchy facilitates project success because it allows for clear lines of authority, monitoring and control.
H2: In the presence of competing hierarchies – or competing power structures in general – it is the coherence and overlap of motivational structures that determines project success H3: Given the importance of correct procedure in the application of health technology, projects will be most successful if their implementation is the responsibility of trained health professionals H1: False, pure hierarchy is an obstacle not an asset They use diffused networks more than hierarchies H2: Causality correct, assumptions unclear and deceptive All these diffused organizations found upon interest Everyone could say they have a high interest in a basic health center, let’s work together on this. They do have a common interest for a while and do work together Motivations go together and that’s why things work Not because of foreign money or an authority structure H3: Not necessarily, Good projects reach beyond health in both vision and staffing They are much broader, their interest in not only health They mobilize all kinds of people Absolutely all of these projects in the health sector use these health promoters who are there for much more than the focus of health They are councilors, business women, educators, etc. These work because they reach beyond the health professionals |
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Best practices in health projects
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Pure hierarchy is exceptional
Network approach Effective decentralization You have people in other boxes (administratively speaking) with real budgets, and real authority Wide spread of objectives Its only good if its about more than health in terms of people it mobilizes and its vision Use of health promoters Much better than relying on expensive health professionals. |
