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76 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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General roots of decolonisation |
- Post-WW2: upsurge of political nationalism - Local leaders in the colonies went to study in European capitals --> put them in touch with European ideals of democracy and freedom which they brought back with them on return to their 'homelands' - Japanese defeat of the Europeans in Asia - Imperialism had been 'tainted' by Nazism - Rise of the US and the USSR --> resisted the ideology of colonialism |
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Countries which witness upsurges of mass political nationalism post-WW2 |
Egypt, India, Korea, China |
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Local leader in colony studying in Europe |
Gandhi at UCL |
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Africa in WW2 + effect of this |
Exploited for material resources (e.g. rubber and tin) and manpower --> On return to Africa, soldiers were more politically conscious and desired European standards of living |
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Europe - Africa: relationship in the period between WW2 and decolonisation |
European imperial powers wanted their colonies to prosper financially so that the wealth generated could (1) help rebuild the 'mother nations' in the aftermath of the war (2) keep them independent from the US and USSR --> sought closer economic and political integration |
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Why increase local political representation in Africa? + E.g. |
It would legitimise the drive towards economic development --> 1946 French Union: representation in French parliament |
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Consequence of European push for Africa to develop economically |
High inflation and low employment prospects --> colonial unrest as early as 1948 in Accra, the capital of the British Gold Coast colony |
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Nuance to European powers trying to generate wealth from their African colonies |
At the same time the Bretton Woods system was allowing capitalist economies to prosper greatly --> imperial powers put less effort and resources into their colonial possessions as they grew less reliant on trade --> except for Portugal which was trying to develop an autarkic economy |
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Violent independence movements |
- Algeria - Kenya (1952 Mau Mau uprising against British colonists) - South Africa |
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Algerian War |
- 1954-62 - Fight for independence against French colonists / settlers - International community disapproved of France's actions - Demonstrated that resisting independence with force was ineffective |
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European powers trying to keep their ties to their colonies |
- British Columbia - French Community --> would involve domestic sovereignty for the African states, but they would have to cooperate with France over foreign affairs --> colonies refused, instead pursuing full independence |
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Southern Africa |
- Remained under white minority rule for a long period after the rest of the continent's new independence - Angola, Mozambique, South Africa and its satellite state South-West Africa, and Rhodesia (modern day Zimbabwe) |
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South Africa reaction to Portuguese independence + reaction of international community |
Tried to isolate itself from the international community. Used violence --> 1986: countries such as the US tightened sanctions |
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Afrikaners |
- Came to power in 1948 - Institutionalised the Apartheid by imposing segregrational laws and exploiting the African workforce |
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Portuguese Empire in Africa |
- Lasted the longest because Portugal had developed an autarkic economy (entirely self-sufficient) based on trade with its colonies, so it was more committed to putting money and effort into retaining colonial control - Collapsed in the 1970s (1974: PM Caetano overthrown by military coup) |
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European expectation of Africa post-decolonisation |
- Former imperial nations expected certain leaders of African independence movements to implement Western-like liberal capitalist models of governance - Sometimes accelerated the transfer of powers so as to ensure their preferred leader would be in power to lead the former colony in such a direction |
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Reality of Africa post-decolonisation |
- States struggled to organise politically and develop economically - Democracies soon returned to single-party elitist governance and became infused with corruption - 'Clientelism' became the political norm as leaders built on patronage systems - New states mirrored the autocratic state apparatus which had underpinned colonial rule - Emergence of a rhetoric of grievance directed at the former colonial powers - Some states started to turn to Marxism and support from the Soviet bloc |
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Neo-colonialism |
- Specifically in French and British former colonies which continued to be subjected to 'indirect rule' --> certain leaders benefited from this, their efforts to maintain the status quo this worsening the situation - Perpetuated relationships of dependency |
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Conflict in Africa post-decolonisation |
- Resource Curse - State boundaries had been artificially constructed by the European imperial powers and did not respect religious divisions, thus exacerbating tribal and ethnic confrontations |
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E.g. Resource curse |
Sierra Leone Civil War 1991-2002 |
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E.g. Conflict because of artificially constructed state boundaries |
Nigeria and Sudan |
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Rwanda |
- Ethnic cleansing carried out by Hutus left approximately 800,000 Tutsis dead - International Community did nothing --> this inaction also allowed for conflict in surrounding regions caused by hostility towards Tutsi refugees |
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E.g. Conflict due to hostility towards Tutsi refugees |
Zaire |
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Successful African states |
- Botswana: model democratic success - Mozambique and Tanzania: economic success |
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Other problems in Africa post-decolonisation |
- Rapid spread of AIDS/HIV - Low levels of education and literacy --> shortage of qualified professionals - High levels of indebtedness from the 1970s remained - Mismanagement of resources - Similar problems to other developing countries such as fluctuations in the world economy |
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What worsened Africa's indebtedness from the 1970s |
The West refused to accept free trade in agricultural production, hindering African states' maximisation of export revenue and their ability to address their indebtedness |
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E.g. Mismanagement of resources in Africa |
Nigeria didn't use its oil wealth for development, instead spending it on financing imports for the urban population |
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E.g. Fluctuations in world economy which harmed Africa |
Debt crisis and collapse of commodity prices in the 1980s |
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Root of problems in Africa post-decolonisation |
- Colonial legacy - The international community viewed Africa as low priority because it did not judge that its corrupt governments deserved support |
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Heightening of superpowers' focus on Africa |
- Spread of independence struggles to southern Africa - Portuguese Empire's eventual collapse |
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Southern Africa's reliance on external help during liberation movements |
- Mozambique and Angola relied on Soviet support - Zimbabwe relied on the PRC |
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Portuguese Empire's collapse in Africa |
Portuguese Prime Minister Caetano was overthrown by military coup in 1974 --> Transfer of powers to Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and Angola |
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Africa's transition in the 1970s and 1980s |
Passage form being largely under the sphere of Western political and economic influence, to being a platform for East-West superpower proxy conflicts |
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Consequence of bipolar setting in Africa |
Enabled post-colonial states, which were otherwise relatively weak, to exert bargaining power with which to extract foreign economic and military aid |
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Proxy conflicts in Africa e.g.s |
Both East and West gave economic and military aid to revolutionary or counter-revolutionary movements e.g. Angola, Ethiopia-Somalia |
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Angolan Civil War |
- Began in 1975 - Cuba intervened, equipped with Soviet weaponry - The US interpreted this as a Soviet effort to make Angola one of its client states - The US Congress did not allow the US enough forces to intervene - Angola thus had communist links when it emerged independent |
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Ogaden War (Ethiopian-Somali conflict) |
- 1977 to 1978 (1977: Somalia attacks Ethiopia) - Territorial war over the Ogaden region - The USSR, which had traditionally supported Somalia, cut ties with the latter and offered its support to Ethiopia - Cuban troops were also deployed - The US responded by supporting Somalia |
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Western fear that communism would spread throughout the African continent, but this was prevented by: |
- The US' far greater ability to offer economic aid than the Soviets' - Africa's Marxist regimes were undergoing domestic problems too severe for them to be able to export their beliefs to neighbouring countries |
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End of the Cold War in Africa |
- Ended some of the African civil wars alongside it
- Symbolic victory of liberal democracy over socialist autocracy prompted more calls for democratisation in Africa - Hope that IOs such as the UN would intervene to help the country develop - African states' salience in world politics diminished, no longer able to manipulate and bargain with the 'North' |
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E.g. End of African civil wars alongside the end of the Cold War in Africa |
Angola, Mozambique |
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E.g. Calls for democratisation in Africa after the end of the Cold War there |
Algeria, Ghana |
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India |
1947: Independence --> partition: extremely violent --> sets precedent |
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Withdrawal of Soviet troops from China and Iran |
Stalin wanted to expose British and American imperialism and encourage liberation movements |
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Soviet and Chinese cooperation + Western attitude towards it |
Cooperated on encouraging revolutions in Asian countries --> Western fears that the two communist states would exploit anti-colonial grievances |
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Outside influence in First Indochina War |
- Stalin encouraged China (Mao) to support the Viet Minh independence movement - The end of the Korean War allowed Mao to increase military assistance to the Viet Minh - although the Americans also propped up the French |
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The US' selective engagement |
Whilst in Indochina the US had condemned the Netherlands, in Vietnam it supported the French |
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Geneva Conference |
- Discussions to settle issues regarding Indochina and Korea - It would be China's first 'appearance' in international diplomacy, and they wanted to make a good first impression - Wanted recognition within the international community --> This was their reason for wanting a compromise in Indochina |
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Principles of Non-Aligned Movement |
- Recently decolonised Asian and African states chose to remain neutral during the Cold War --> it would be an unnecessary security threat - Focus instead of encouraging further decolonisation and addressing underdevelopment |
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Bandung Conference |
- 1955 - Creation of new international system based on non-involvement in the competition between the two superpowers |
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International significance of, and superpower response to, the Non-Aligned Movement |
- Gave a certain degree of 'power' to the 'Third' World --> Created a third bloc able to oppose the bipolarity of the international system |
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Undermining of the Non-Aligned Movement |
Cuba's interventions in Angola and Ethiopia undermined the movement's non-aligned nature and in turn undermined its lobby to the West |
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Ultimate significance of the Non-Aligned Movement |
More symbolically than practically important --> Put a number of issues on the international agenda --> Unable to convince the advanced industrialised countries to make concessions over trade and aid |
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When did Soviet exploitation of anti-colonial sentiment in the Middle East begin |
Not under Stalin but under Khrushchev |
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Europe's worries in the Middle East |
- Needed Middle Eastern oil for Western reconstruction - Tried to contain Soviet influence before it could become as widespread as it had in Southeast Asia |
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The USSR in the Middle East |
- Rather than successfully exploiting existing anti-colonial sentiment in the Middle East, the Iranian and Turkish crises raised fears of Soviet colonialism - Stalin failed his plan to separate Iranian Azerbaijan from the rest of the country - Soviet strategic failures ultimately prevented it from attaining the level of influence in the Middle East which it might have been able to acquire |
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Complication of America's position in the Middle East |
The US had to balance its anti-colonial stance and its alliances. |
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Truman's decision in the Middle East + Kennan's response |
Against the word of his advisors, President Truman announced support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine --> George Kennan: threatens US interests in the Middle East and the Mediterranean, fractures Western unity, and undermines US policy towards the USSR |
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Middle East - US limited military capabilities |
Because of its limited military capabilities, the US needed British and French cooperation in the Middle East --> But it was British and French colonialism itself which had made the Middle East vulnerable |
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Secretary Dulles |
- Cold War hydraulicist: believed the dangers in one region could easily reach other regions - Communist already controlled much of Asia, and if |
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Egyptian desire for British withdrawal |
- Communists already controlled much of Asia, and if Egyptian nationalism forced a premature withdrawal of Britain from Suez, it could leave a power vacuum open to Soviet exploitation - Yet Nasser was adamant that the British should withdraw - Dulles switched to the Northern Tier Strategy |
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Dulles' Northern Tier Strategy |
An alliance of Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Pakistan could form a border next to the USSR and PRC, thus preventing their expansion of influence |
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Suez Crisis |
- The West refused to fund Nasser's plans for the construction of a dam on the River Nile - Nasser retaliated by nationalising the Canal - French, Israeli and British troops secretly set up an Israeli invasion of the Sinai, in order to use the conflict as a pretense to seize the Canal - US unhappy, supported the Egyptians |
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Aftermath of Suez Crisis |
- Collapse in British and French prestige - Left behind a power vacuum, thus allowing the US opportunity to impose itself in the region --> 1958 US intervention in Lebanon |
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Soviet perspective of Latin America |
US' geographic and hemispheric hegemony made it appear impossible for Soviet influence to ever reach Latin America |
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US in Guatemala |
CIA covert intervention in Guatemala --> produced overconfidence in covert operations --> influenced what was later to happen in Cuba - Bay of Pigs |
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East/West response to Castro's insurgency |
- Castro's insurgency was an unexpected yet welcome surprise for the Soviets - It created Western capitalist fears that such revolutions could happen anywhere |
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Colonial legacy cannot explain all of Africa's problems + E.g.s |
Even states with a long history of independence suffered political and economic problems E.g. Liberia and Ethiopia |
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Pan-Africanism |
- Nationalist movement celebrating the cultural and spiritual unity of all Africans - Advocated the idea of an African Federation |
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Lumumba |
- Congolese politician - Advocate of pan-Africanism - Assassinated by a coalition of domestic and international forces |
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Organisation of African Unity (OAU) |
- 1963 African conferences decides this is preferable to a federation --> name may connote ideas of pan-Africanism but the organisation was really designed to generally uphold the status quo --> marked the death of pan-Africanism |
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USSR-Africa pre-Cold War in Africa |
- Certain independent African states were becoming increasingly left-wing but did not seek rapprochement to Moscow as they wanted to preserve their newfound sovereignty - Bar Somalia (good naval facilities), the USSR did not consider Africa a priority preferring to focus instead on India and the radical Arab states |
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US-Africa pre-Cold War in Africa |
- The West was not too concerned by the left-leaning tendencies of certain African states - The US was not very focused on Africa, judging it to be the responsibility of Europe's former imperial powers |
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Congo Crisis |
- Did not bring the Cold War into the continent because the USSR didn't have the capacities to intervene effectively, but: - Radicalised those regimes that were appalled by the West's role in the assassination of Congolese politician Lumumba |
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Nkrumah |
- Ghanaian politician - Supported Lumumba's ideas of pan-Africanism and socialism and became increasingly radical after the assassination - His vision gained little appeal |
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John Darwin (1988) |
Britain had no intention of giving up its colonies |
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Gaddis (1997) |
Washington and Moscow's approach to the "Third" World likened the approach of European imperial states to their former colonies |
