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248 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what charge do protons carry?
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positive
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what charge do neutrons carry?
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neutral
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what charge to electrons carry?
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negative
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what are valence electrons?
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the electrons farthest from the nucleus
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what is the smallest unit of a chemical element?
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atom
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what subatomic particles are atoms composed of?
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protons, neutrons and electrons
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what subatomic particles form the nucleus of an atom?
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protons and neutrons
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where do electrons exist?
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outside the nucleus in orbitals
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atomic number = ?
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atomic number = number of protons
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mass number = ?
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mass number = number of protons + neutrons
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in a neutral atom the number of protons = ?
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= number of electrons
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what is an ion?
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results due to loss or gain of electrons (when an atom has a positive or negative charge)
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what is atomic weight?
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common convention used to define the mass of an atom
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what is an isotope? **
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same number of protons (atomic number) different number of neutrons (different mass number)
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what is ionization energy?
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energy required to remove an electron completely away from a gaseous atom or ion
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what is electron affinity?
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the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom.
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what does electron affinity represent?
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the ease with which an atom can accept an electron
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do alkaline earth metals have high or low electron affinity?
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low
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do halogens have high or low electron affinity?
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high- because they just need one more electron to have an octet
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what is electronegativity?
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measure of the attraction an atom has for electrons in a chemical bond
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what is Zeff (effective nuclear charge)?
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the attractive pull of the nucleus for electrons
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what type of bond is likely between a group 1 or 2 element and a group 7 element?
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ionic bond
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what type of bonding is characterized by high melting and boiling point due to strong electrostatic forces between ions?
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ionic bond
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what type of bond is most likely to occur between elements with similar electronegativities ?
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covalent bond
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what type of bond is most likely between elements with a difference in EN greater than 1.7?
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ionic bond
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which bonding involves a transfer of electrons?
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ionic
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what type of bonding involves sharing of electrons?
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covalent
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which bond contains weak intermolecular forces?
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covalent
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bond length and bond energy characterize what type of bond?
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covalent
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which is the shortest covalent bond; a triple bond, double bond or single bond?
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triple bond is shortest
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which is the strongest covalent bond; triple, double, single?
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triple; bond strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases
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what is the formula for formal charge?
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f.c. = # valence electrons - 1/2(# electrons shared) - # electrons owned
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what are resonance structures?
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two or more different lewis structures for same molecule
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what is a resonance hybrid?
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the hybrid representation of multiple resonance structures combined into the "real" structure
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is a lewis structure with larger or smaller formal charges preferred?
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smaller = better
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in lewis structures, where is a negative formal charge most stable?
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on the more EN element.
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what determines if a covalent bond is polar or nonpolar?
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the difference in electronegativities between atoms
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under what circumstances do polar covalent bonds exist?
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between atoms with small differences in EN values
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what is a dipole moment?
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in polar covalent bonds, the more EN element is delta- and the less EN is delta+ ; forming a dipole moment
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in a dipole moment what direction does the vector arrow point?
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from positive to negative
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under what circumstances do nonpolar covalent bonds occur?
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between atoms with the same EN (H2, Cl2, O2, N2)
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what is a coordinate covalent bond?
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where the shared electron pair comes from the lone pair of one of the atoms in the molecule.
(typically found in lewis acid-base compounds) |
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what is a lewis acid?
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accepts electron pair to form covalent bond
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what is a lewis base?
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loses an electron pair to form a covalent bond
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what is the valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory? (VSEPR)
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predicts the molecular geometry of covalently bonded molecules based on lewis structures
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the attractive forces that exist between molecules are collectively known as what?
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intERmolecular forces
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dipole-dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, and dispersion forces are types of what?
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intermolecular forces
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what forces constitute van der waals forces ?
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1) dipole-dipole interactions
2) dispersion forces |
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do polar species tend to have higher or lower boiling points than nonpolar species of comparable molecular weight?
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higher
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what are dipole-dipole interactions?
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a result of polar molecules orienting themselves with a positive region next to a negative
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what are the intermolecular forces?
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hydrogen bonding and van der waals (dipole-dipole & dispersion)
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which of the intermolecular forces is strongest?
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hydrogen bonding
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does hydrogen bonding occur intramolecularly or intermolecularly?
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both
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what are dispersion forces AKA?
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london forces
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what are dispersion forces?
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rapid & temporary unequal sharing of electrons in covalent bonds
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do hydrogen-bonded species have exceptionally low or high bp?
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high! strong forces; hard to break
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what is a molecule?
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a combination of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
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do ionic compounds form true molecules?
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no.. covalent compounds=molecules
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what is the difference between molecular weight and formula weight?
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molecular weight = covalent compound
formula weight = ionic compound |
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what is avogardo's number?
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6.022 x 10^ 23
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how do you calculate number of moles present?
ex: how many moles are in 9.52g of MgCl2? |
mol = weight of sample (g)/ mw
mol = 9.52 / 95.21 = .10 mol |
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to find moles given grams of a compound, what formula is used?
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mol= g/mw
(g= grams of sample) (mw= mw of compound) |
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what is the formula for percent composition of an element?
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% composition = mass of X in formula / mw x 100
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what is an ionic equation?
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includes spectator ions that do not participate in the actual reaction (displacement rxn)
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what is a net ionic reaction?
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shows only the species involved in the reaction, not the spectators
(displacement rxn) |
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what type of reaction is double displacement and involves an acid reacting with a base to produce salt and water?
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neutralization
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how do you calculate theoretical yield?
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theor. = (starting amount)(mw product) / ( mw of starting)
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how do you calculate percent yield?
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% yield= product amount/ theo. yield
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the slowest step in a proposed rxn mechanism is known as what?
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rate-determining step
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how are orders of rxn determined?
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experimentally
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what is an enthalpy change?
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represented by deltaH; the difference between the the potential energy of the products and the potential energy of the reactants
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what does a negative delta H represent?
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an exothermic reaction; heat is given off
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what does a positive delta H represent?
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an endothermic reaction; heat absorbed
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as a rule of thumb, the rate of a reaction will double approximately, for each increase in temperature of how much?
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10 degree Celsius increase= rate of rxn doubles approximately
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what are the four main factors affecting reaction rate?
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1. reactant centrations
2. temperature 3. medium 4. catalysts |
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when the forward rate of rxn = the reverse, what is the rxn said to be at?
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equilibrium
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what is Kc? what is it denotated as when dealing with gas?
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equilibrium constant
kp= gas |
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neutral, nonmetallic elements will always have electrons in what shell?
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p
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how many electrons can a p-subshell hold?
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6
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if a compound contains NH4 is it ionic or covalent bond?
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ionic, even though it doesn't contain a metal
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a large ion usually has the most what?
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negative charge
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do molecular solids have high or low melting points?
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****low.. like sugar and ice- just held together by week molecular interactions. ****
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what is a network solid?
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like a diamond, a compounds held together by an extended network of covalent bonds which are usually stronger than ionic bonds.
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how is rate law calculated?
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ONLY by experiment!
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high Ksp value corresponds to what? (small exponent)
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high solubility
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low Ksp value corresponds to what? (large neg. exponent)
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low solubility
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the most soluble compound will have the greatest/smallest Ksp value?
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greatest (small exponent)
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transition metals have a tendency to form what?
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complex ions
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in experimental measurements, accuracy refers to what?
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how close result is to actual value.
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in experimental measurements, precision refers to what?
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how close results are to one another (consistency)
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if a solution gets colder it is..?
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endothermic
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solutes whose solutions are conductive are called what?
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electrolytes
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metals tend to form anions/cations?
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cations (positive ions)
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nonmetals tend to form anions/cations?
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anions (negative ions)
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solutes whose solutions are conductive are called what?
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electrolytes
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metals tend to form anions/cations?
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cations (positive ions)
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nonmetals tend to form anions/cations?
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anions (negative ions)
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ionic compounds (NaCl and KI), and molecular compounds with highly polar covalent bonds are considered strong/weak electrolytes?
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strong
ex: HCl in water; dissociates completely |
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acetic acid, other weak acids, ammonia and other weak bases do not dissolve completely in aq solution and therefore considered to be what?
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weak electrolytes
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what are nonelectrolytes?
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compounds that do not ionize at all in aq solution (including organic compounds, nonpolar gases, oxygen, sugar)
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the number of moles of solute per liter of solution ...is what?
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molarity
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the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent ...defines what?
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molality
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a positive delta H means what?
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rxn is endothermic (heat goes on the reactants side)
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a negative delta H means what?
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the rxn is exothermic (heat goes on the products side)
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what does it mean when E0 is negative?
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reaction is NOT spontaneous
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what is a rxn said to be when a positive E0, -deltaG, and K>1 are observed?
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spontaneous!
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a spontaneous rxn has what?
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+E0
-deltaG K>1 & goes to completion by at least 50% |
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which elements are known to form complex ions, form colored compounds, have varying oxidation numbers ?
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transition metals
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elements beyond the second row are capable of what regarding the octet rule?
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expand their octets to include more than 8 electrons by incorporating d-orbitals
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which type of bonding forms crystal lattices?
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ionic bonding
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which are the only elements that the octet rule always applies to STRICTLY?
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CNOF
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a covalent bond can either be..?
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polar or nonpolar
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what makes a molecule polar?
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covalent bond where there is a difference in EN and the the e- are pulled towards more EN element, resulting in a dipole moment
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when is a molecule nonpolar?
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covalent bonding between atoms with same EN values (diatomic molecules) AND ALSO when dipoles cancel each other out ...
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what is a coordinate covalent bond?
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the shared e- pair comes from the lone pair of one of the bonding molecules
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when is coordinate covalent bonding common?
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lewis acid-base compounds
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what does intermolecular mean?
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between molecules
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do ionic compounds form true molecules?
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no! only covalent MOLECULES
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how do you go from emperical formula to molecular formula?
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divide the true molecular weight (given) of the molecule by the emperical formula you just calculated
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double displacement reactions are AKA what?
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metathesis reactions
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what is the difference between ionic equation and net ionic equation?
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net ionic does not include spectator ions, wheres ionic equation does!
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whats the difference between a molecular equation and ionic equation?
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ionic equation is composed of ions in solution ; molecular formula includes bonded molecules/compounds
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neutralization rxn are a type of what?
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double displacement rxn
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when balancing equations who should be saved for last?
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oxygen and hydrogen (usually the most represented in rxn)
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what is true about rate law if you are provided with the RATE-DETERMINING step?
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the exponents are equal to the coefficients (onlyyy of the rate-determining step!) not entire rxn!
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if delta G is negative then the rxn is what?
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spontaneous
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if delta G is positive then the rxn is what?
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not spontaneous
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what does it mean if delta G is zero?
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rxn is at equilibrium & thus,
delta H= (T)(delta S) |
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water boiling is an endo/exo- thermic rxn?
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endothermic... bonds are being broken, energy is absorbed, and delta H is positive
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under what conditions do gases deviate from ideal conditions?
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low pressure, high temp
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under what conditions are gases most soluble?
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high pressure, low temp
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what formula is used to calculate heat absorbed or released in rxn?
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q= MCAT
heat= mass*specific heat*delta T |
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what is a state function?
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a property that does not depend on mechanism of change.. just before and after
(enthalpy, entropy, free energy) |
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if you increase the concentration of reactants, what happens to rxn rate?
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it increases
(all but zero order rxns) |
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what happens to rxn rate if you increase temp?
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rxn rate increase
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true or false: transition states (top of potential energy diagram) has greater energy than either the reactants or products.
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true ... TS is where old bonds are weakened and new bonds are preparing/beginning to form
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on a potential energy diagram, if the products are LOWER than the reactants the rxn is what?
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exothermic (-delta H)
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on a potential energy diagram, if the products are HIGHER than the reactants then the rxn is what?
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endothermic (+ delta H)
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what is the second law of thermodynamics?
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all spontaneous reactions result in an increase in entropy
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what is the gibbs free energy equation?
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AG = AH - TAS
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when bonds are broken what occurs?
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endothermic rxn
+delta H |
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when bonds are formed what occurs?
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exothermic rxn
+delta H |
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aggregates of positively and negatively charged ions are ...?
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ionic solids
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what are the physical properties of ionic solids? why so?
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high melting point, high boiling point, ***poor electrical conduction in solid phase.***
(due to strong electrostatic interactions) |
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what is a metallic solid?
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consists of metal atoms packed together as closely as possible
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what are the physical properties of metallic solids? why so?
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high melting points, high boiling points
(due to strong covalent interactions) |
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the repeating units of crystals (both ionic and metallic) are represented by what?
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unit cells
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what are the three cubic unit cells?
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simple
body-centered face-centered |
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how many atoms are in a body-centered cubic unit cell?
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2
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how many atoms are in a face-centered cubic unit cell?
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4
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a solid can be either ...
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crystalline (3d - salt)
amorphous (not 3d- glass) |
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are most solids crystalline or amorphous?
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crystalline
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what are the two most common forms of crystals ? (solid structure)
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metallic and ionic
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vapor pressure increases as ______ increases.
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vapor pressure increases as temperature increases
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the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the external pressure is called what?
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boiling point
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when a solid goes directly to gas the process is called what?
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sublimation
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what is the reverse of sublimation?
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deposition : gas to solid
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fusion is AKA
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melting
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vaporization is AKA
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evaporation
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delta H will be -/+ for melting, vaporization and sublimation?
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positive
(endothermic) |
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is entropy increasing or decreasing for melting, vaporization and sublimation?
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increasing
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what causes the solid-liquid line in phase diagram of water to be skewed to the left?
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hydrogen bonding
skewed to left= line points right |
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in general, under what conditions is the gas phase found?
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high temp
low pressure |
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in general, under what conditions is the liquid phase found?
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high temp
high pressure |
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under what conditions is the gas phase typically found?
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low temp
high pressure ?? |
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on a phase shift diagram, what is the critical point?
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point of temp and pressure beyond which no distinction can be made between liquid and gas phases.
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on phase shift diagram what is the triple point?
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point where all 3 phases are in equilibrium
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what can effect vapor pressure?
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only temperature
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what can effect K (or any variation there of)
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only temperature!
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what is freezing point depression based on?
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the fact that addition of solute particles lowers freezing point by interfering with the process of crystal formation.
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what effect does the addition of solute have on freezing point?
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solute lowers freezing point!
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what happens to a liquid when its vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure?
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it boils
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how is boiling point elevation calculated?
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same as freezing point depression; where bp elevation= molality*Kb value
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what does the addition of solute have on bp on a solution?
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increases bp (think salt in water when cooking pasta)
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as the concentration of solution increase, the osmotic pressure does what?
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also increases
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what does osmotic pressure depend on?
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amount of solute
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what is solvation?
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interaction between solute and solvent molecules
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in what medium are ionic and polar solutes soluble in?
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polar solvents
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in what medium are nonpolar solutes soluble in?
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nonpolar solvents
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regarding solubility: when the maximum amount of solute has been added the solution is in equilibrium and said to be ...?
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saturated ...& when more is added, it will not dissolve
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true or false: NH4 is ionic even though it lacks a metal
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true
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in what type of solution do acid-base reactions and redox reactions occur?
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ionic solution
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do metals tend to form cations or anions?
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cations
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do nonmetals tend to form cations or anions?
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anions
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when is a solute considered a strong electrolyte?
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when it dissociates completely into its constituent ions
ex: NaCl, KI and compounds with highly polar covalent bonds |
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what are nonelectrolytes?
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compounds that do not ionize at all in aq solution
ex: nonpolar gases & organic compounds (oxygen & sugar) |
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weak electrolytes only ionizes slightly in aq soltuion. what are some examples?
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acetic acid (and other weak acids) ammonia (and other weak bases) & HgCl2
**weak acids & weak bases** |
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what formula is used when asked a dilution problem?
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m1v1 = m2v2
*only true equation when same number of each molecule in both compounds!* for instance 2 H's before and after..otherwise use N1V1=N2V2 ...with normality! |
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what color does litmus paper turn in acidic conditions?
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red
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what color does litmus paper turn in acidic conditions?
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red
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what color does litmus paper turn in basic conditions?
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blue
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what color does litmus paper turn in basic conditions?
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blue
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what is the arrhenius definition of acids and bases?
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acids yield H+ in aq solution; bases yield OH- in aq solution
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what is the arrhenius definition of acids and bases?
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acids yield H+ in aq solution; bases yield OH- in aq solution
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a bronsted-lowry base is a __
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a bronsted-lowry base is a proton acceptor
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a bronsted-lowry base is a __
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a bronsted-lowry base is a proton acceptor
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a bronsted-lowry acid is a __
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a bronsted-lowry acid is a proton donor
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a bronsted-lowry acid is a __
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a bronsted-lowry acid is a proton donor
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a lewis acid is a __.
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a lewis acid is an electron acceptor
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a lewis acid is a __.
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a lewis acid is an electron acceptor
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a lewis base is a ___.
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a lewis base is an electron donor
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a lewis base is a ___.
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a lewis base is an electron donor
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pH of 7 is ___.
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neutral
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pH of 7 is ___.
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neutral
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pH above 7 is ___.
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basic
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pH above 7 is ___.
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basic
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pH below 7 is ____.
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acidic
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pH below 7 is ____.
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acidic
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pH= -log [H+]
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pH= -log [H+]
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pOH= -log [OH-]
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pOH= -log [OH-]
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what is Kw?
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the water dissociation constant
kw= 1.0 x 10^-14 |
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pH + pOH = ?
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14
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what is the relationship between Ka and Kb?
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Ka & Kb are inversely related.
if Ka is big, then Kb is small and visa-versa |
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what is hydrolysis?
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the reverse of a neutralization reaction; salt ions react with water to give back the acid or base
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the weaker the acid, the _____ the Ka.
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weak acid = small Ka
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the weaker the base, the ____ the Kb.
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weak base = small Kb
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what does a high Ksp correspond to?
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high ksp= high soluble
most soluble = highest ksp value |
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what does a low Ksp correspond to?
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low ksp= low solubility
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what is an amphoteric species?
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a species that can either gain or lose a proton.
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what is the most common example of an amphoteric species?
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water. when it reacts with an acid, it acts like a base; when it reacts with a base, it acts like an acid.
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what is a polyvalent acid/base?
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a species that liberates more than one acid or base equivalent per mole
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what are some common polyvalent acids?
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H2SO4, H3PO4, and H2CO3
*be careful with "dilution" problems ...use normality instead of just molarity!* |
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are species that can act as either oxidizing or reducing agents considered to be amphoteric?
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yes; they can either accept or donate a proton.
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what is titration?
|
procedure used to determine the molarity of an acid or base
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during titration, when is the equivalence point said to have been reached?
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when the number of acid equivalents equals the number of base equivalents.
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what are typically used as indicators during titration?
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weak organic acids or bases that have different colors in their undissociated and dissociated states.
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in a titration, is the end point and equivalence point the same thing?
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NO! the end point is the term used to describe when the color of the indicator changes... However, in a good titration, they will be very close!
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what is the pH of the equivalence point of a strong base- strong acid titration?
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7
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what are the two types of electrochemical cells?
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galvanic and electrolytic
galvanic AKA voltaic |
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in which electrochemical cell do spontaneous reactions occur?
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galvanic / voltaic cell
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in which electrochemical cell do nonspontaneous reactions occur?
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electrolytic cell
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where do oxidation and reduction occur within an electrochemical cell?
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electrodes
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for all electrochemical cells, the electrode at which oxidation occurs is called what?
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the anode
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for all electrochemical cells, the electrode at which reduction occurs is called what?
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cathode
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a redox reaction occurring in a galvanic cell has a -/+ delta G?
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negative = spontaneous
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a redox reaction occurring in an electrolytic cell has a -/+ delta G?
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positive = nonspontaneous
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what is the net result of beta decay?
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atomic number increases by 1 ; mass number stays the same
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what is the result of alpha decay?
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mass number decreases by 4; atomic number decreases by 2
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what is the result of gamma decay?
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no notable change in mass or atomic numbers
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what units is molecular weight in ?
(molecular mass=molecular weight) |
grams/mole
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what is the standard enthalpy of formation of elements or diatomic molecules?
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0
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what is unique about the way in which NH4 bonds?
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it can form ionic bonds, despite lacking a metal !
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what is a network solid?
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a solid held together by an extended network of covalent bonds- usually stronger than ionic bonds! ex: diamond asbestos and graphite
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how do you determine rate law?
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EXPERIMENTALLY! you can not just write it out like a Ksp or Keq expression! without a table you CAN NOT DETERMINE rate law!
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Do transition metals have a tendency to form complex ions?
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yes!! thus, a molecule containing a transition metal would likely be more soluble in NH3 than a molecule containing an alkali or alkali earth metal
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what kind of solid is SiO2 and what kind of bonds does it exhibit?
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silicon is a metalloid and forms a network solid; exhibits very strong si-o bonds
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out of network covalent bonds (diamond), ionic bonds (KNO3), hydrogen bonds (HNOF) and london dispersion forces (CH4) which is strongest and weakest? which would have the highest and lowest boiling points?
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strongest= diamond= network covalent bond = highest bp
weakest = methane = dispersion forces = lowest bp |
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what type of molecules are most likely to exist as single molecules?
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covalent molecules- ionic compounds do not exist as single molecules, but instead in an orderly array called a crystal lattice
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