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238 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

What is the difference in DNA between eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

Eukaryotes: DNA wrapped around histone proteins. double–stranded, located in the nucleus.

Prokaryotes: single, short, circular DNA

What is the material that makes up bacterial cell walls?

peptidoglycan
How are bacteria classified? What are the categories?
By appearance.

Cocci – round–shaped
Bacilli – rod–shaped
Spirilla – spiral–shaped
What kingdom does blue–green algae belong to?
Monera. Blue–green algae is also known as cyanobacteria
What are the main properties of the kingdom Protista? Give an example.
simple eukaryotes that are not fungi, animals, or plants. No cell wall.

Examples: protozoa (aka animal–like protists) or slime molds
What material makes up the cell wall in Fungi?
chitin
What is the most important different in distinguishing plants and fungi?
plants are autotrophs, fungi are heterotrophs
What are the properties of the kingdom Fungi? Give examples.
mostly multicellular, non–motile, asexual reproduction, cell wall (chitin), heterotrophs.

Examples: mushroom, lichens, yeast
Organisms under Kingdom Fungi usually obtain energy as...
decomposers or parasites
What material makes up the cell wall in plants?
cellulose
You find an unknown microorganism that lives in the extreme cold. If you had to guess, what domain does it belong to?
Archaea
What are examples of the Domain Archaea?
extremophiles, methanogens
What are the three Domains?
Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya
What are the characteristics of cell walls in Archaea?
The cell walls lack peptidoglycan, contain S–layers
What domains contain histones in their DNA?
archaea, eukarya
What essential elements make up all organisms?
CHNOPS (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur)
An organism uses hydrogen sulfide as an energy source. What type of organism is it?
chemoautotroph
By using light as an energy source, plants are the best example of:
photoautotrophs
What is the theory that explains how eukaryotes came to be?
Endosymbiotic theory: eukaryotes formed as a result of symbiosis between prokaryotes
What evidence is there for the endosymbiotic theory?
Ribosomes resemble certain bacteria

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have: their own DNA (separate from the host cell), reproduce independently of host cell via binary fission, double–membraned.
The heterotroph hypothesis states that:
The first, most primitive life–forms on Earth were heterotrophs
Which scientist demonstrated that organic compounds could be synthesized by simple, inorganic substances?
Stanley Miller
An organism requires oxygen to survive. This is an example of:
Obligate aerobes
An organism can only survive in the absence of oxygen. This is an example of:
obligate anaerobes
An organism can survive with or without the presence of oxygen. This is an example of:
facultative anaerobe
This organelle's job is to recycle and breakdown a cell's waste
lysosome
The ribosome is responsible for:
protein synthesis
The roughness of the endoplasmic reticulum is due to:
the presence of ribosomes
What is the function of the smooth ER?
lipid synthesis and detox
If a material requires vesicles to transport, it would need the help of which organelle?
Golgi apparatus
This organelle's main job is to produce energy for the cell
mitochondrion
This organelle serves as a cell's storage unit:
vacuole
Why is an animal cell usually round, and a plant cell usually rectangular?
The plant cell has a cell wall, which creates a rigid rectangular shape.
A cell is dropped into a hypotonic solution. What happens?
the cell will lyse (burst)
A cell is dropped into a hypertonic solution. What happens?
the cell will shrink/shrivel
A cell is dropped into an isotonic solution. What happens?
Nuthin'
How is simple diffusion different from facilitated diffusion?
simple: permeable molecules flow down the concentration gradient

facilitated: impermeable molecules require carrier proteins to flow down the concentration gradient
Glucose wants to get inside a cell. This would require what type of transport?
facilitated diffusion
A sodium–potassium pump is an example of ____ transport?
active
Active transport requires ___
ATP
In a phospholipid bilayer, the heads are ____ and the tails are _____
heads – hydrophillic
tails – hydrophobic
Where does glycolysis occur?
cytosol
Does glycolysis require oxygen to occur?
No, but it can still occur when oxygen is present (facultative anaerobic process)
What is the reaction of glycolysis? What is the net production?
glucose (6C sugar) –> 2 pyruvate (3C sugar)
1 NADH is the equivalent of how many ATP?
1 NADH = 3 ATP
1 FADH2 is the equivalent of how many ATP?
1 FADH2 = 2 ATP
Pyruvate Decarboxylation occurs where?
mitochondrial matrix
What is the reaction in pyrvuate decarboxylation? What is the net production?
pyruvate + CoA (coenzyme A) –> acteyl CoA + 1 NADH + 1 CO2 [per pyruvate]
Where does the Krebs Cycle occur?
mitochondrial matrix
What happens in the Krebs Cycle? What is the net production?
Acetyl CoA cycles through intermediates before regenerating as itself.

Net production: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, 1 CO2 [per acetyl CoA]
Where does the electron transport chain occur?
inner mitochondrial membrane
In the electric transport chain, what is the function of oxygen?
Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons, which is used to form water
How much ATP is created from aerobic respiration?
36
Why does aerobic respiration produce 2 less ATP than expected?
energy is required to transport 2 NADH from the cytosol, into the mitochondria, where the ETC is.
In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate from glycolysis is turned into what? (humans)
lactic acid
In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate from glycolysis is turned into what? (bacteria)
ethanol and CO2
In the absence of oxygen, the next step after glycolysis is:
Fermentation
In the presence of oxygen, the next step after glycolysis is
pyruvate decarboxylation
What is the net ATP production of fermentation?
2 ATP
A stack of thylakoids are called:
a granum (plural: grana)
The cuticle's main function is to:
prevent water loss for a plant
What are the three layers of a leaf?
upper epidermis, mesophyll, lower epidermis
What is the function of xylem?
The transport of water and minerals in plants.
What is the function of phloem?
The transport of food in plants.
In photosynthesis, where do the light reactions take place?
grana
In photosynthesis, where do the dark reactions occur?
stroma
This is an important enzyme for the Calvin Cycle.Its purpose is carbon fixation.
Rubisco
Which layer is the chloroplast located?
mesophyll
Which layer is the stomata located?
lower epidermis
These cells control the opening/closing of the stomata:
Guard
In the light reactions of photosynthesis, what occurs during cyclic electron flow?
electrons are used to make ATP from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate)
In the light reactions of photosynthesis, what occurs during noncyclic electron flow?
electrons reduce NADP+ to NADPH. Water is split to form oxygen
What is the first step of the light reactions in photosynthesis?
light is absorbed by chlorophyll, which excite electrons into a higher energy level
In 1 cycle of the Calvin Cycle, how many 2 PGAL is formed?
2 PGAL from 1 cycle
How many cycles of the Calvin cycle are required to make 1 glucose
6 cycles = 1 glucose
6 turns of the Calvin Cycle produce 12 PGAL. 6 PGAL combine to form glucose. What does the other 6 do?
combine to reform RBP to allow the Calvin cycle to continue
What is photorespiration?
Rubisco is nonspecific: can fix oxygen as well as CO2. Products of fixing oxygen are harmful byproducts and cause plants problems in getting rid of it
How is CAM photosynthesis different than regular photosynthesis? What is the purpose? Give an example of a CAM plant.
The stomata is open at night and closed during the day. The purpose is to reduce water loss. Examples: cacti, pineapples
What is the purpose of C4 photosynthesis?
To minimize photorespiration and reduce water loss
What are the properties of enzymes?
Increase rate of reaction by lowering activation energy. Not used up in the reaction. Very specific for reactions. Does not shift the equilibrium point.
Enzymes sometimes require inorganic molecules to help them function. What are they called?
cofactors
Enzymes sometimes require organic molecules to help them function. What are they called?
coenzymes
An enzyme binds to a secondary site to prevent a substrate from binding to the active site. This is an example of:
Noncompetitive Inhibition
A substrate binds to an enzyme's active site, preventing another substrate from binding. This is an example of:
competitive inhibition
What are the two models proposed to explain enzyme and substrate fits? Which one is better
Induced fit > lock & key
What factors affect enzymes?
Temperature, pH, presence of cofactors/coenzymes
What makes up a nucleotide?
a 5–carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate group
What gives DNA its negative charge?
The negative charge of the phosphate backbone
Adenine binds to?
Thymine and Uracil
What are examples of Purines?
Adenine, guanine
What are examples of pyrimiidines?
cytosine, thymine, uracil
How do nitrogenous bases bond to each other?
Hydrogen bonds
How do nucleotides bond to each other?
phosphodiester bonds
cytosine binds to?
guanine
These guys discovered the structure of DNA
Watson and Crick
What 5–carbon sugar is found in DNA? In RNA?
deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA
Strand X contains more C–G bonds than A–T. Strand Y contains more A–T bonds than C–G. We can conclude that...
Strand X will be more durable, because C–G has 3 hydrogen bonds, while A–T only have 2 hydrogen bonds
The first step of DNA replication is to unzip the double helix structure. This requires the help of this enzyme
DNA helicase
These enzymes prevent supercoiling
topoisomerase, DNA gyrase
This enzyme adds on new nucleotides during DNA replication
DNA pol III
This enzyme adds on new nucleotides during transcription
RNA pol II
Where do we find Okazaki fragments? Why are they there?
Okazaki fragments are found in the lagging strand. This is because DNA replication only occurs from 5' to 3'.
This enzyme adds RNA primers for DNA pol III to elongate off of
Primase
Central Dogma
DNA to RNA to proteins
What is transcription?
DNA to RNA
What is translation?
RNA to proteins
What is it called when synthesizing proteins from mRNA?
translation
This is the site of transcription
nucleus
How does RNA pol know where to bind during transcription?
Promoter region (e.g. TATA box)
What needs to happen for a pre–mRNA to turn into a mature RNA? List the steps.
post–transcriptional RNA processing: 5' methyl guanine cap, 3' poly–A tail, splicing
What happens during splicing?
introns are removed, exons are glued together
This enzyme joins amino acids with a peptide bond
peptidyl transferase
What kind of bond connects two amino acids?
peptide bonds
How many sites are in a ribosome? What are they called?
2. P and A.
What are the steps in translation?
Initiation, Elongation, Termination
This RNA brings amino acids by matching the anti–codon with the codon
t–RNA (transfer)
How many chromosomes do humans have?
23 pairs of chromosomes (so 46 total)
How old is Earth?
4.5 billion years
A nucleotide is inserted into a sequence. This could led to a:
frameshift mutation
A nucleotide is substituted by another, but the amino acid doesn't change. This is an example of a:
silent mutation
A nucleotide is substituted by another, leading to the coding of a different amino acid. This is an example of a:
missense mutation
A nucleotide is substituted by another, leading to an early stop codon. This is an example of a:
nonsense mutation
Silent mutations are possible because DNA can be described as:
degenerate
The third position of a codon is usually called:
wobble
What characterizes Turner Syndrome?
XO
What characterizes Klinefelter Syndrome?
XXY
What characterizes Down Syndrome?
Trisomy 21 (Three copies of chromosome 21)
Define a gene.
a sequence of nucleotide that code for proteins, responsible for a certain trait
Define an allele.
different versions of a gene. (e.g. X, Y are different alleles in gender)
A flower has an allele for red petals and an allele for white petals. If co–dominance is present, what would we expect to see?
A flower with both red and white petals (both alleles are expressed)
A flower has an allele for red petals and an allele for white petals. If incomplete dominance is present, what would we expect to see?
A flower with pink petals (the alleles are blended)
Humans are diploid. This means:
We have two alleles for each gene.
What phenotype ratio would we expect for a dihybrid cross?
9:3:3:1
What is the Lamarckian view of evolution?
use and disuse, inheritance of acquired characteristics
Which process is common in both aerobic and anaerobic organisms? (cellular metabolism)
Glycolysis
Chlorophyll and carotenoids are:
pigments in photosynthesis
Two birds look very similar to each other, yet are from different two different continents. This is an example of:
Convergent evolution
Anabolism is defined as:
building up a large molecule from smaller pieces (think: anabolic steroids)
Catabolism is defined as:
breaking down a large molecule into smaller pieces (think: cataclysm or catastrophe)
What are the conditions in a dihybrid cross?
Two genes, both parents are assumed to be heterozygous (e.g. AaBb x AaBb)
What are the conditions in a monohybrid cross?
One gene, both parents assumed to be heterozygous (e.g. Aa x Aa)
Definition: evolution
change in frequency of alleles in a population over time
Two body parts resemble each other due to common ancestry. This is an example of:
homologous structures
Two body parts resemble each other due to both adapting to similar environments. This is an example of
Analogous structures
An appendix is left over in the human body due to ancestral origins and has no real purpose. This is an example of:
a vestigial structure
What are some evidence that support the theory of evolution?
Fossil records, embryology, DNA similarities, comparative anatomy (homologous, analogous, vestigial structures)
Two animals share common ancestry, but have evolved to adapt to different environments. This is an example of:
Divergent evolution
Two species evolve together due to a symbiotic relationship. This is an example of:
coevolution
What are the conditions for Hardy–Weinburg Equilibrium?
no natural selection, random mating, no migration, large stable population, no mutations
define: population
all members of 1 species in 1 area
define: community
2+ species in 1 area
define: ecosystem
community + environment
Two species arise from a common ancestor due to a geographical barrier. This is an example of:
allopatric speciation
Two species arise from a common ancestor, but not due to a geographical barrier. This is an example of:
sympatric speciation
An environment is characterized by permafrost. This is an example of what biome?
Tundra
An environment is characterized by polar ice caps and no vegetation.
polar regions
What are the properties of Water?
1) Excellent solvent
2) High high capacity
3) Ice floats
4) Strong cohesion and high surface tension
5) Strong adhesion
What are the four macromolecules?
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
What kind of bond connects two sugar molecules?
Glycosidic linkage
A chemical reaction occurs when two molecules are joined together, but water is lost as a result. What is this reaction called?
dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction occurs where water is added to break up a bond between two molecules. What is this reaction called?
hydrolysis
What is the difference between starch and glycogen?
Starch is the primary energy storage molecule in plants. Glycogen – for animals.
Define: saturated and unsaturated fats
saturated: a fatty acid with all single, covalent bonds

unsaturated: a fatty acid with 1+ double covalent bonds
What are the four levels of a protein?
Primary structure: amino acid chain
Secondary: 3D structure (H–bonds). Examples to know – alpha helix and beta pleated sheet
Tertiary: 3D (H–bonds, ionic bonds, R–groups)
Quaternary: 2+ separate chains
In terms of enzymes, define cooperativity.
This describes how an enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after one substrate attaches to an active site.
What is the primary reason that phospholipids tend arrange themselves into a bilayer formation?
the heads are hydrophilic, while the tails are hydrophobic. By arranging in a bilayer, the tails are kept dry and the heads are facing out to the water
Which organelle is present in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
ribosome
What is another name for carrier proteins?
cytochromes
What is the purpose establishing a H+ gradient outside the cell during the oxidative phosphorylation?
To allow ATP synthase (channel protein) to generate ATP from ADP as H+ ions flow back into the cell. [Think about how a dam uses water flow to create energy]
Definition: locus
the location on a chromosome where a gene is located
What is a common example of multiple alleles?
Human blood type. Three possible alleles: I^a, I^b, or i
DNA replicates in a way such that half of the daughter strand is from the original (template) strand, and half the new, replicated DNA. This type of replication is referred to as:
semiconservative replication
What are the function of telomerases?
Telomerases are present at the end of eukaryotic chromosomes to prevent DNA loss during replication.
Two organisms have different mating seasons in the year. Because of this, they will never reproduce. This is an example of what kind of reproductive isolation?
temporal isolation
Define: phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium
Phyletic gradualism: argues that evolution occurs by the gradual accumulation of small changes

Punctuated equilibrium: argues that evolutionary history is mostly long periods of time with little evolution, and interrupted by short periods of rapid evolution
Scientists theorize that the first cells on Earth were probably:
heterotrophs
A roundworm belongs to which Animalia phylum?
nematoda
Define: instinct
behavior that is innate or inherited. Example: in mammals, caring for offsprings by female parents is innate
Define: imprinting
a process in which a specific behavior is acquired if an appropriate stimulus is presented during a critical period. Example: during the first day of life, baby ducks will accept any moving object as their mother for life. Any object presented after the critical period, including their real mother, was rejected
A mouse is placed in a maze over and over again. Each time, he remembers more and escapes the maze faster. This is an example of what kind of learning?
operant conditioning
Sometimes animals use chemicals in order to communication with other animals. These chemicals are called:
pheromones
What is the benefit of establishing territory (e.g. lions or dogs)
To reduce competition and protect resources
An established social order in a wolf pack can be referred to as the:
pecking order
Certain trees provide food and housing for ants. In exchange, The ants kill any foreign insects or fungi on the tree. This an example of:
mutualism
Many birds build their nest in trees. Generally, the tree is not helped nor hurt. This is an example of:
commenalism
Examples of freshwater biomes include:
lakes, rivers, wetlands
This is an automatic behavorial response to simple stimuli that does not require activity from the brain
reflex
When a trainer first enters the cage, the gorilla gets spooked. But after the trainer comes 4–5 times, the gorilla is no longer startled and has no response to the stimuli. This is an example of what kind of behavior?
habituation
An animal is capable of internally regulating its temperature. This is an example of:
endotherm
An animal primarily depends on the environment to regulate its temperature. This is an example of:
ectotherm
In the pyramid of energy (or ecological pyramid), the order from bottom to top is what? Also, what happens to the amount of energy as you go up the pyramid?
producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer.
Energy decreases with each successive level.
An environment is hot, dry and is consisted mostly of insects, lizards and catci. This an example of what biome?
Desert
This biome is the best environment for herbivores that graze, and also their respective predators.
Grasslands
This biome is characterized by high temperatures, high rainfall, dense vegetation and diverse animals.
Tropical rain forest
This biome is defined by beech, maple, oaks, and willows, as well as cold winters, warm summers and moderate rainfall
Deciduous forest biome
This biome is cold, dry, and defined by fir, pine and spruce trees.
Coniferous forest biome
This biome has long winters. Its chief lifeforms are: the spruce, moose, moos and lichens.
Taiga
[Marine biome] This zone is exposed at low tides and submerged at high tides. Population includes: algae, sponges, calms, snails, starfish, crabs
Intertidal zones
[Marine biome] This zone extends several hundred miles from shore but is still on the continental shelf. Population: crabs, algae, crustacea, fish
littoral zone
[Marine biome] This zone is characterized by photosynthetic plankton, fish, sharks, and whales.
Pelagic zone: photic
[Marine biome] This zone receives no sunlight and only heterotrophs live here
Pelagic zone: aphotic
Viruses that exclusively infect bacteria are called:
bacteriophages
These plants lack xylem, undergo alternation of generations, and must live in moist places. Which plant division is this?
Division Bryophyta (example: mosses, liverworts)
Mosses and liverworts belong to which plant division?
Division Bryophyta
Ferns belong to which plant division?
Division Pterophyta
This division contains angiosperms with covered seeds.
Division Anthophyta
This division contains gymnosperms (or naked–seeded plants)
Division Coniferophyta
These plants have vascular, differentiated tissue. The sporophyte generation is dominant. Which division is this?
Division Tracheophyta
Kingdom Animalia: two layers of cells, are sessile, and low degree of cellular specialization
Porifera (sponges)
Hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone and coral belong to which animal phylum?
Cnidarians (The "C" is silent)
These worms are ribbonlike, have bilateral symmetry, and have three layers of cells including a solid mesoderm. They do not have a body cavity. What animal phylum is this?
Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
These worms are psuedocoelomate, with a solid mesoderm and no circulatory systems.
Nematoda (round worms)
The hookworm belongs to which animal phylum?
Nematoda (round worms)
These segmented worms posses a coelom (true body cavity), with a circulatory, nervous and excretory systems. What animal phylum?
Annelida (segmented worms)
The earthworm belongs to which animal phylum?
Annelida
Clams, snails, and squids belong to which animal phylum?
Mollusca
These animals are soft bodied, with calcareous exoskeletons and gills. What animal phylum?
Mollusca
Spiders and lobsters are both part of which phylum?
Arthropoda
These animals have jointed appendages, chitinous exoskeletons and open circulatory systems. Which phylum is this?
Arthropoda
What are the three main classes of the phylum arthropoda?
insects, arachnids, crustaceans
This arthropoda has a segmented body with various appendages and gills
crustaceans (e.g. lobsters, crayfish, shrimp)
This arthropoda has four pairs of legs and "book lungs"
arachnids. (No need to know what book lungs are – just like they are exclusively in arachnids)
This arthropoda has three pairs of legs
insects
Animals in this phylum possess radial symmetrical, are spiny and has the capacity to regeneration parts.
Echinoderms (e.g. starfish, sea urchin)
Starfishes are part of which phylum?
echinoderms
Vertebrates are under which animal phylum?
chordates
This phylum is characterized by notochords
chordates
Which class(es) of animals possess a two–chambered heart?
fishes
Which class(es) of animals possess a three–chambered heart?
reptiles
Which class(es) of animals possess a four–chambered heart?
birds and mammals
This class of animals lives in water as a baby, but matures into an adult on land
amphibia
This class of animals lay leathery eggs, utilize internal fertilizations and are "cold–blooded" with scales.
reptiles
What's an example of cartilaginous fish?
sharks
These type of fish have no jaws; instead, they have a "sucking mouth"
jawless fishes
These fish have scales, lack an adult notochord, and are the most prevalent type of fish
bony fishes
These animals lay leathery eggs but have mammary glands with no nipples (Sounds impossible, I know)
monetremes (e.g. platypus, spiny anteater)
These mammals carry their young in pouches
marsupials (e.g. kangaroo, opossum)
These animals have embryos that develop fully in the uterus and provides nutrients via the placenta

placental mammals