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591 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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evolution
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change in genetic makeup of a population
constant propagation of new variations in the genes of a species which leads to an adaptive advantage |
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fossils
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most direct evidence of evolutionary change
remains of extinct ancestor found in sedimentary rock |
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petrification
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minerals replace cells of an organism
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imprints
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impression left by an animal; footprints
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casts
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formed by minerals deposited in molds
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trilobite
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primitive crustacean
relative of the lobster dominant form of early Paleozoic era |
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dinosaurs
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dominant form of early Mesozoic era
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eohippus
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primitive horse; vestigial toes
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wooly mammoth
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hairy elephant found in Siberian ice
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preserved in asphalt tar pits
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saber-tooth tigers
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amber
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fossilized resin which oozed from trees; insects preserved here as well
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archaepteryx
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missing link between reptiles and birds; has teeth, scales, and feathers
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homologous structures
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same anatomical features and evolutionary origins
- wings of bat - flipper of a whale - forelegs of horses - arms of man |
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analogous
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similar functions but different evolutionary origins and different pattern of development
ex: wings of fly and wings of a bird |
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comparative embryology
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- 2 layer gastrula is similar to the structure of hydra (cnidaria)
- 3 layer gastrula is similar to the flatworm - gill slits a common ancestry with fish - avian embryo has teeth (reptile stage) - larvae of some mollusks resemble annelids - human embryos possess a tail |
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comparative biochemistry
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organisms closely related to each other share similar:
- metabolic processes - respiratory processes - genetic information - chemical similarity of blood more time that has elapsed since divergence more different biochemical characteristics |
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vestigial structures
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- human appendix
- human tail - splints on legs of horse (remains of eohippus) - useless bones of python - hind limb bones of whale |
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migration
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1) allows for species multiplication
2) lessens intraspecific competition |
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geographic barrier
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- increases likelihood of genetic adaptations on either side of the barrier
- random, non-adaptive changes will occur as well - in time reproduction isolation will occur if barrier is removed |
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marsupials
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- a line of pouched mammals
- geographic barrier protected more primitive pouched mammals from competition with modern placental mammals ex: kangaroo, duckbill, platypus, pouched wolves, eucalyptus tree |
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Darwin's finches
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- single species of finch underwent adaptive radiation to form 13 different species of finches
- slight variations in beak favored ground or tree-feeding causing each emerging species to become entrenched in its niche |
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Lamarckian evolution
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- amount of change of an organism was dependent on the use or disuse of the organ
- fallacious understanding of genetics ex: giraffes had long necks because they needed them to eat leaves on tall trees |
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Darwin's Theory: Agents Leading to Evolutionary Change
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1. Overpopulation: more offspring are produces than can survive
2. Variations: offsprings display variations due to mutations (discovered by De Vries) 3. Competition: competition for necessities; young die while number of adults remains same 4. Natural selection: "survival of the fittest" 5. Inheritance of the variations: individuals that survive the longest are able to reproduce 6. Evolution of new species: adaptations are perpetuated in species; changes in gene pool were selected for by environ. conditions |
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DDT resistant insects
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- illustrates theory of natural selection
-DDT-resistant mutant flies are more favorable and more likely to survive |
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population
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includes all members of a particular species in a given location
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gene pool
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sum total of all the alleles for any given trait in the population
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gene frequency
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relative frequency of a particular allele
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Hardy-Weinberg Principle
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Stable gene pool where population is not evolving
1. population is very large 2. There are no mutations that affect the gene pool 3. mating between individuals in the population is random 4. there is no net migration of individuls into or out of the population 5. genes in population are all equally successful at reproducing |
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Hardy Weinberg Equation
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p2 + 2pq + q2= 1
p2: freq. of dominant homozygotes 2pq: freq. of heterozygotes q2: freq. of recessive homozygotes |
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Deviations from HWE
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1) natural selection: freq. of favorable genes increases within gene pool
2) mutation: change in allele freq. shifting gene equilibria 3) assortive (nonrandom) mating 4) genetic drift: change in composition of gene pool due to chance 5) gene flow: migration of individuals between populations |
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species
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- groups of individuals who can interbreed freely with each other
- distinct species are reproductive isolated from each other |
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deme
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- small local population
- members of a deme resemble one another - closely reated geetically ex: beavers along specific portion of a river |
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factors leading to speciation
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1. genetic variation
2. changes in environment 3. migration to new environments 4. adaptation to new environments 5. natural selection 6. isolation |
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niche
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distinct lifestyle
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adaptive radiation
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emergence of a number of lineages from single ancestral species (divergent evolution)
ex: Darwin's finches |
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phylogeny
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evolutionary history
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convergent evolution
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groups developed in similar ways when exposed to similar environments
ex: fish and dolphin |
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parallel evolution
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- development through geographically separate environments
-similar adaptations ex: pouched wolf and placental wolf |
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isolation
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- genetic isolation often results from geographic isolation
- over time these genetic differences may become significant enough to make mating impossible |
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heterotroph hypothesis
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- first forms of life lacked ability to synthesize own nutrients
- energy obtained from heat, electricity, and solar radiation - anaerobic respiratory processes |
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Miller experiment
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combined UV radition, heat, mixutre of methane, hydrogen, ammonia and water to show the production of organic compounds:
- urea - hydrogen cyanide - acetic acid - lactic acid |
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coacervate droplets
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- cluster of colloidial molecules surrounded by a shell of water
- absorb and incorporate substances from surrounding environment - NON-living primitive unstable cell - first primitive cells probably posses nucleic acid polymers and able to reproduce |
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autotrophic nutrition
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- life would not have existed without autotrophic nutrition
- carbon fixation released oxygen as a byproduct - earth went from reducing --> oxidizing -destroyed conditions which made their development possible - some O2 --> O3 which functions in blocking high energy radiation |
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general category of living organisms
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1. autotrophic anaerobe: chemosynthetic bacteria
2. autotrophic aerobes: green plants and photoplanktons 3. heterotrophic anaerobes: yeasts 4. heterotrophic aerobes: amoebas, earthworms, humans |
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primordial soup
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precursor to all organic molecules
- oxygen - nitrogen - carbon - hydrogen |
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euglena moves using
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flagellum
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phytoplankton is part of kingdom
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protista
plantlike |
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photosynthetic protist
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algae
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example of rhizopod
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amoeba
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rhizopods move using
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pseudopodia
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rhizopod is an example of
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animal like protists
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heterotrophic protist
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protozoa
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bacteria classified based on
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morphological appearances:
cocci= round bacilli=rod spirilla= spiral duplexes= diplococci clusters= staphylococci chains= streptococci |
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cyanobacteria
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blue green bacteria
-no flagella, no nucleus, chloroplasts or mitochondria -contain photosynthetic pigments and cell wall -descended from first organisms which developed photosynthetic capabilities |
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lysogenic cycle
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1. virus integrates its genetic information with host's
2. virus becomes dormant, letting the host multiply and continue its normal activities 3. virus enters lytic cycle |
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lytic cycle
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1. virus infects a host cell
2. uses host cell's metabolism to multiply 3. destroys the cell completely |
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science of classification and nomenclature
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taxonomy
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modern classification system based on ---
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evolutionary relationships
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kingdom is divided into
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phyla= animals
division= plants |
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Kingdom ---> Species
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Kingdom --> Phylum --> Class --> Order --> Families --> Genus --> Species
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Classification of Humans
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Kingdom: Animal
Phylum: Chordata Sub-Phylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: Sapiens |
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scientific name consists of
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genus + species
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came up with scheme to scientifically name organisms
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Carolus Linnaeus
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not considered living organisms
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viruses
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Kingdom Monera
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1. prokaryotic
2. unicellular 3. no nucleus 4. no membrane bound organelles 5. unicellular 6. asexual reproduction (binary fission) |
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Kingdom Protista
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1. eukaryotic
2. unicellular 3. plant like- green bacteria 4. animal like- paramecium 5. unicellular 6. no differentiation ex: euglena motile and photosynthetic (nor plant nor animal) |
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Kingdom Fungi
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1.eukaryotic
2. multicellular- except yeast 3. heterotrophic 4. differentiated 5. non-motile 6. saprophytic (bread mold) 7. parasitic (athlete's foot fungus) 8. cell wall made of chitin |
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Kingdom Plantae
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1. eukaryotic
2. multicellular 3. photosynthetic 4. differentiation of tissues 5. alternation of generations |
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Kingdom Animalia
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1. eukaryotic
2. multicellular 3. heterotrophic 4. motile 5. differentiated tissues and organs |
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viruses that exclusively infect bacteria
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bacteriophage
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phytoplankton is an example of
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algae
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heterotrophic, algal protist
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euglena
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multicellular algae sometimes placed in animal kingdom
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blue, green, and red algae
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slime molds are arranged in --- and lack ---
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arranged in coenocytic (many nuclei) of protoplasm
lack septa |
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protist resembling fungi
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slime molds
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fungi mode of reproduction
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asexual sporulation
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fungi---food from environment
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absorb
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absorptive tissues in primitive plants
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rhizoids
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permit transmittance of light in plant
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waxy cuticle
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sporophyte contains
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sporangium
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produces spores
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sporangium
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produces eggs in seedless plants
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archegonium
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division of plants in moist places
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bryophyta
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protonema
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young moss plant
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dominant stage in bryophyta
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gametophyte
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tracheophyta have dominant --- generation
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sporophyte
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4 Divisions of Vascular plants
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Psilophyta
Lycophyta Sphenophyta Pterophyta |
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most primitive tracheophytes
rhizoids instead of roots one vascular bundle (microphyll) |
psilophytes
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non woody
have roots contain microphyl leaves |
lycophta
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club mosses are part of what division
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lychophyta (tracheophytes)
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roots
microphyll leaves hollow jointed stems |
sphenophyta
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equisetum is part of what division
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sphenophyta (tracheophyta)
-also known as horsetail |
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largest division of tracheophytes
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pterophytes
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evolved from psilopsids
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pterophyta
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ferns contain large leaves known as
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megaphyls
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xylem in the form of --- for pterophyta
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tracheids
(not vessels!) |
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fern's leaves =
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sporophyte generation
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fern leaves grow from
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rhizome
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bryophytes and ferns have --- sperm
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flagellated; require water
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largest group of gymnosperms
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conifers
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cycads, pins, spruce, firs
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examples of conifers
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female cones produce
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megaspore
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male cones produce
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microspore
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megaspore and microspore produced by
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sporangia
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truly terrestrial plant division
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gymnosperms
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ferns grow ---
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lengthwise
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gymnosperms grow ---
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in diameter and lengthwise
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nondeciduous means
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evergreen
ex: gymnosperms |
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nondeciduous and non hebaceous
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gymnosperms
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hebaceous means
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green with soft stems
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division anthophyta includes
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angiosperms
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principal reproductive structure for angiosperms
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flower
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produces megaspores in angiosperms
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ovary in pistil
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means by which seeds are dispersed in angiosperms
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fruit
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xylem in the form of tracheids and vessels
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angiosperm
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net veined leaves
vascular bundle about a ring central cyclinder flower parts in X of 4/5 cambium woody |
dicot
ex: maple and apple tree, potato, carrots, goldenrods, and buttercups |
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parallel veins
scattered vascular bundles flower parts in X of 2/3 no cambium non-woody (hebacious) |
monocots
ex: sugar cane, pineapple, irises, bananas, orchids palm= woody monocot |
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two germ layers in coelentrates
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endoderm and ectoderm
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cnidaria also known as
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coelentrates
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calcium carbonate exoskeleton
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phylum mollusca
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three classes of arthropoda
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1. insect
2. arachnids 3. crustaceans |
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chordata have -- at some point
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notochord
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lancelet
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invertebrate chordates
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class agnatha
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jawless fish
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cartilagnous fish
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shark
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--- replaces notochord
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bony vertebrate
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amphibia = --- fertillization
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external
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larval stage of amphibia
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tadpole
-has gills |
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leathery eggs and internal fertillization
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reptile
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poikiothermic
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cold-blooded
ex: reptiles |
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homeothermic
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warm-blooded
ex: birds |
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3 types of mammals
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monetremes
marsupials placental |
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embryo fully developed in uterus
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placental mammal
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begins development in uterus and completes develop. while attached to nipples in abdomen
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marsupial
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lays leathery eggs and has horny bills and mammary glands with no nipples
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monotreme
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duckbill platypus
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example of monotreme
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spiny anteater
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example of monotreme
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study of interactions between organisms and their environment
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ecology
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climate, temperature, light, water, topology
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part of abiotic environment
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living organisms which directly or indirectly influence life of organism
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part of biotic environment
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organisms is composed of
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organ system --> organ --> tissues --> cells --> molecules --> atoms --> subatomic particles
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group of same species living together
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population
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similar organisms that can reproduce
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species
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consists of populations of plants and animal species interacting with each other
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community
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consists of populations and NOT their physical environment
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biotic community
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includes community and the environment
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ecosystem
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encompasses interaction between living biotic communities + non-living environment
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ecosystem
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includes all portions of planet which support life
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biosphere
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biosphere includes
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lithosphere: rock and soil
atmosphere hydrosphere: oceans |
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aquatic photosynthesis takes place in
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photic zone
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aquatic environment where only animal life and other heterotrophic life exist
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aphotic zone
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air is --- percent oxygen
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20
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substratum consists of
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soil and rock
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contain high percentage of each type of soil
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loams
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determines amount of decaying plant and animal life in soil
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humus quantity
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--- affect type of vegetation that can be supported
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minerals
ex: nitrates and phosphates |
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determines water holding capacity of soil
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texture
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acidity, texture, loams, minerals,
humus |
soil is affected by all of the following
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most type of plants grow best in
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loams
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physical place where organism lives
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habitat
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organisms lifestyle- what it eats, how it gets its food
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niche
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two different species can not occupy the same ---
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niche
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two distinct niches can be formed by
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divergent evolution
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capable of digesting cellulose and inhabit the digestive tracts of herbivores
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symbiotic bacteria
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have shorter digestive tracts
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carnivores
ease of digesting animals |
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types of symbiotic relationships
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commensalism
mutualism parasitism |
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one or both organisms cannot survive without each other
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obligatory
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barnacle and whale
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commensalism
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symbiotic relationship between:
shark and remora |
commensalism
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relationship between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legumes
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mutualism
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protozoa and termites
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mutualism
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intestinal bacteria and humans
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mutualism
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parasites that cling to the surface
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ectoparasites
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parasites that live within the host cell
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endoparasites
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parasitisms exists among
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bacteria, fungi, and man
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all --- are parasites
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viruses
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free living organisms feeding on other living organisms
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predation
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includes protists and fungi that decompose dead organic matter
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saprophytes
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animals which consume dead animals
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scavengers
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interspecific interactions
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relations between species
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chief disruptive force
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competition
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reproduction
protection from predators destructive weather These are examples of--- |
cohesive forces
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saltwater fish
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hyperosmotic
lose water take in salt compensation: excretion of salt constantly drinking concentrated urine |
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freshwater fish
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hypoosmotic
intake water lose salt compensation: drink less absorb salts dilute urine |
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excrete solid uric acid to conserve water
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insects
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dessication
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drying
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desert animals posses adaptations for
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dessication
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desert plant traits
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extensive root system
spiny leaves to limit water loss extra thick cuticles few stomata |
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located on the lower leaf surface
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stomata
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--- animals activity dependent on environment temperature
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poikilothermic (cold-blooded)
hot = active cold = inactive |
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--- slow heat loss for warm blooded animals
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fat, hair, and feathers
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map of complex pathways involved in transfer of energy
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food chain
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two examples of producers
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autotrophic green plants
chemosynthetic bacteria |
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consume green plants
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herbivores OR primary consumers
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consume primary consumers
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canivores OR secondary consumers
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less energy as you go --- the food pyramid
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up
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each level can support a --- biomass as you go up the energy pyramid
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less
Why? Because energy is lost in the form of heat |
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less energy content, less total mass, fewer number of organisms
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as you go up the energy pyramid
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involved in cycling material
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scavengers and decomposers
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nitrogen is chemically inert
what makes it usable? |
lightning and nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen in nitrate
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--- are absorbed by plants and and used to synthesize nucleic acids and plant proteins
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nitrates
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kinds of bacteria in material cycle
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decay
nitrifying dentrigying nitrogen-fixing |
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convert ammonia to nitrites then nitrates
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nitrifying bacteria
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convert ammonia to free nitrogen in atmostphere
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denitrifying
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convert free nitrogen to nitrates
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nitrogen-fixing bacteria
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where are nitrogen fixing bacteria located
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on roots of legumes
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animals produce --- as a waste product
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ammonia
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stable community which depends on all abiotic factors
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climax community
distrupted when natural disaster occurs |
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process by which one biotic community replaces another
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ecological sucession
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dominant species
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exerts control over other species
(present in ecological succession) |
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first organism to settle
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pioneer organism
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distinct communities
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biome
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land biomes characterized by
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climax vegetation
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climax vegetation determines
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climax animal population
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< 10 inches rain
plants conserve water small animals who live in burrow few birds and mammals |
desert
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10-30 in rainfall (low)
long legged and hooved animals no shelter for herbivores from carnivores |
grassland
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high temp. and torrential rain
dense growth of vegetation floor filled with saprophytes epiphytes located here |
tropical rainforest
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epiphytes are found in---
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tropical rainforest
plants growing on other plants |
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cold winters
warm summers moderate rainfall trees shed leaves in winter beech, maple, oaks, willows |
temperate deciduous forest
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cold, dry forests
fir pine and spruce water conservation in plants = needle shaped leaves |
temperate coniferous forest
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less rainfall than temperate forest
moss and lichens on forest floor extreme northern parts moose only spruce trees |
taiga
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treeless, frozen plain
between taiga and northern ice sheets wet and marshy lichens, moss, polar bears short summer/growing season |
tundra
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frozen area
no vegetation or terrestrial animals animals in this region live in oceans |
polar region
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base of mountain= --- biome
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temperate deciduous forest
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coniferous --> taiga --> tundra --> polar region
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biomes as you go up the mountain
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in --- food webs, communities, nutrients, and temperature is balanced
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aquatic
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two types of aquatic biomes
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marine and freshwater
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zones of marine biomes
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intertidal
littoral pelagic photic aphotic |
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divides photic and aphotic
open seas |
pelagic
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sunlit layer containing plankton, nekton, and diatom
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photic
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active swimmers such as sharks, whales, and large fish
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nekton
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chief autotroph in photic layer
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diatom
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region which receives no light
deep sea organisms located here competitive habitat benthos |
aphotic
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region exposed to low tides
variations in temp. sea urchins, starfish, crab periods of dryness |
intertidal
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region on continental shelf
far from shore |
littoral
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crawling and sessile organism in aphotic zone
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benthos
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rivers, lakes ponds and marshes
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freshwater biomes
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cell turgor in --- biome
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freshwater biome
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stops influx of water in freshwater biome
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cell turgor
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affected by variation in weather
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freshwater biomes
(excludes large lakes) |
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simple automatic responses to simple stimuli
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reflexes
less important in higher animals more important in lower animals |
|
|
afferent neuron
|
receptor
|
|
|
efferent neuron
|
motor
|
|
|
startle response involves interaction of many neurons known as
|
reticular activating system
|
|
|
complex, coordinated innate behavioral responses
|
fixed action patterns
|
|
|
stimulus that elicits behavior in fixed action pattern
|
releaser
|
|
|
unlikely to be modified by learning because they are innate and complex
|
fixed action patterns
|
|
|
daily cycles of behaviors
|
circadian rhythms
|
|
|
internal vs external control
|
internal: natural body rhythms
external: elements of environment (ringing bell) |
|
|
higher animals rely on --- while lower animals rely on ---
|
higher --> learning
lower --> innate |
|
|
capacity to learn depends on
|
neurologic develelopment
|
|
|
repeated stimulus results in decreased response
|
habituation
|
|
|
autonomic response
|
viscernal
|
|
|
bell in Pavlov's experiment
|
arbitrary stimulus
|
|
|
--- has occurred when a neutral stimuli elicits a response
|
pseudoconditioning
|
|
|
shown multiple stimuli but only rewarded for one
|
habit family hierarchy
|
|
|
elimination of conditioned response
|
extinction
|
|
|
based on reward and reinforcement
|
operant/instrumental
|
|
|
stimulus farther and farther away from conditioned stimulus produces a less profound response
|
stimulus generalized gradient
|
|
|
process in which environmental patterns presented to developing organism during critical period
|
imprinting
|
|
|
Konrad Lorenz jumped in a pond to see if ducklings would follow largest object assuming he was the mother duck
|
phenomenon of imprinting
|
|
|
specific time during animal's early development when it is physiologically able to develop behavioral patterns
|
critical period
|
|
|
if light is not present during this period, visual effectors will not develop properly
|
visual critical period
|
|
|
--- interactions occur as a means of communicating between members of the same species
|
intraspecific
|
|
|
singing, calling, or intentional change in physical char. is an example of ---
|
innate behavioral displays
|
|
|
mating displays
|
reproductive
|
|
|
display of threat
|
agonistic
|
|
|
dog directs its face straight and raises its body
|
antagonistic
|
|
|
social hierarchy of dominant and subordinate species
|
pecking order
|
|
|
adaptive function of distributing members of the same species so that environmental resources are not depleted
|
territoriality
|
|
|
larger population = --- territories
|
smaller
|
|
|
two types of pheromones
|
1. releaser
produce reversible behavior change in recipient sex alarm toxic defensive 2. primer produce long term behavioral change |
|
|
significant means of communication in animals
|
olfactory sense
|
|
|
process of removal of metabolic wastes produced in the body
|
excretion
|
|
|
removal of indigestible material
|
elimination
|
|
|
aerobic respiration produces
|
CO2 and water
|
|
|
deamination of amino aids in liver leads production of nitrogenous wastes such as
|
ammonia and urea
|
|
|
--- possess contractile vacuole which excretes water by active transport
|
paramecium
|
|
|
use passive diffusion as a means of excretion
|
protozoans and cnidaria
all cells are in contact with external environment |
|
|
excrete urea via nephridia
|
annelids
|
|
|
excrete CO2 from tissues into tube like trachea connected to spiracle
|
arthropod
|
|
|
excrete uric acid crystals through malpighian tubules
|
arthropods
|
|
|
organs of excretion in humans
|
lungs, liver, skin, and kidneys
|
|
|
produces blood pigment wastes and nitrogenous wastes
|
liver
|
|
|
maintain osmolarity of blood
excrete numerous waste products conserve glucose, water, and salt |
kidneys
|
|
|
bile salts and red blood pigments are excreted as --- and pass out with feces
|
bile
|
|
|
capillary bed in kidneys
|
glomerulus
|
|
|
bulb in kidney is known as
|
Bowman's capsule
|
|
|
runs through medulla
|
loop of henle
|
|
|
convoluted tubules and bowman's capsule are in
|
cortex
|
|
|
facilitates re absorption of amino acids, glucose, salts and water
|
peritubular capillary network
|
|
|
filtration is --- process driven by ---
|
passive
hydrostatic pressure of blood |
|
|
fluid and small solutes entering nephron are called
|
filtrate
|
|
|
found in blood plasma
globular protein cannot be filtrated |
albumin
|
|
|
passive AND active --- occurs in peritubular capilaries
|
secretion
|
|
|
active process that occurs in convoluted tubule
|
reabsorption
|
|
|
osmolarity gradient created due to --- of nephron
|
selective permeability
|
|
|
causes medulla in kidney to be hyperosmolar compared to dilute filtrate in collecting tubule
|
countercurrent system
|
|
|
vasopressin
|
ADH
|
|
|
pores in stem
|
lenticels
|
|
|
osmolarity in kidney increases from
|
cortex---> medulla
low concentration of salts --> high concentration of salts |
|
|
cell, cell fragments, and proteins remain on --- side in nephron
|
circulatory side
|
|
|
provides support and locomotion
|
skeletal system
|
|
|
thrusting movement of cilia or flagella
return of cilia or flagella to original position |
1) power stroke
2) recovery stroke |
|
|
movement of cell membrane used by ameoba
|
pseudopodia
|
|
|
cilia and flagella are made up of
|
9+2 microtubule arrangement
|
|
|
annelids and flatworms composed of--- for movement
|
hydrostatic skeleton
|
|
|
---, or bristles anchor earthworm
|
setae
|
|
|
composed of noncellular material secreted by epidermis
|
exoskeleton
|
|
|
exoskeletons limit growth, which leads to --- and deposition of a new skeleton
|
molting
|
|
|
vertebrate skeleton which surrounds vital organs
|
endoskeleton
|
|
|
major components of skeleton
|
cartilage and bone
|
|
|
type of connective tissue used for flexiblity
|
cartilage
located: external ear, larynx, trachea, skeletal joints |
|
|
mineralized connective tissue that has ability to withstand stress
|
bone
|
|
|
dense bone that does not appear to have any cavities
|
compact bone
|
|
|
bony matrix in compact bone is composed of structural units called
|
osteons
(Haversian systems) |
|
|
less dense, consists of interconnecting lattice
|
spongy bone
|
|
|
spongy bone consists of bony --- filled with yellow or red bone marrow
|
spicules (trabeculae)
|
|
|
inactive and infiltrated by adipose tissue
(hint: in bones) |
yellow marrow
|
|
|
involved in blood cell formation
|
red marrow
|
|
|
osteon consists of microscopic channels
|
Haversion Canal
|
|
|
Haversian canal is surrounded by a concentric bony matrix composed of calcium phosphate
|
lamellae
|
|
|
--- build bone
---destroy bone |
osteoblast
osteoclast |
|
|
bone is formed by:
--- in long bones or ---in skull |
endochonral ossification:
cartilage is replaced by bone intramembranous ossification: mesenchymal (undifferentiated) connective tissue is replaced by bone |
|
|
skull, vertebra, and ribcage
|
axial skeleton
|
|
|
bones of appendages, pectoral and pelvic girdles
|
appendicular
|
|
|
immovable joints hold bones of skull together
|
sutures
|
|
|
bones that do move are held by --- and supported by ---
|
movable joints
ligaments |
|
|
point of attachment of muscle to stationary bone=
|
origin
|
|
|
point of attachment of muscle to a bone that moves=
|
insertion
|
|
|
bending of a joint
straightening of a joint |
flexion
extension |
|
|
types of muscle
|
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
|
|
|
created by fusion of several mononucleated embryonic cells
|
multinucleated cells
location: skeletal muscles |
|
|
stores calcium ions in skeletal muscles
|
sarcoplamic reticulum
|
|
|
propogates action potential in muscle cell
|
sarcolemma
|
|
|
--- abundant in muscle cells
|
mitochondria
|
|
|
striated muscles have ---
|
alternating light and dark bands
|
|
|
filaments of muscle cell
|
myofibril
|
|
|
region contains thin filaments (actin) only
|
I band
|
|
|
runs down center of sarcomere
|
M line
|
|
|
defines boundaries of single sarcomere
|
Z line
|
|
|
region contains thick filaments only
|
H zone
|
|
|
overlapping thick and thin filaments
|
A band
|
|
|
link between nerve terminal and sarcolemma
|
neuromuscular junction
|
|
|
--- leads to release of AcH
|
depolarization
|
|
|
initiates contraction of sarcomere
|
calcium
|
|
|
time between stimulation and onset of contraction
|
latent period
|
|
|
involves the response of a single muscle fiber to a stimulus at or above threshold
|
simple twitch
|
|
|
period in which muscle is unresponsive to a stimulus
|
relaxation period
also known as absolute refractory period |
|
|
stronger and longer contraction
|
summation
|
|
|
contractions become continuous when frequently shown stimuli
|
tetanus
*eventually muscle fatigue will weaken contractions |
|
|
state of partial contraction
|
tonus
*muscles are never completely relaxed! |
|
|
uni-nucleated
|
smooth muscle
|
|
|
consists of digestive tract, bladder, uterus, and blood vessel walls
|
smooth muscle
|
|
|
characteristics of both smooth and skeletal muscle
|
cardiac
|
|
|
smooth and cardiac muscle are --- capable of contacting without stimulation from nerve cells
|
myogenic
(formation of muscle fibers) |
|
|
1 or 2 nuclei
actin +myosin filaments arranged in sarcomere |
cardiac muscle
|
|
|
---- high energy compound that stores energy in vertebrates + echinoderms
|
creatine phosphate
*arginine phosphate used by invertebrates |
|
|
maintains oxygen supply in muscle cells
|
myoglobin
|
|
|
decreases in length during muscle contraction
|
H zone, Z line, and A band
|
|
|
structure used in amoeba for phagocytosis of food
|
pseudopod
|
|
|
most unicellular organisms capture food via
|
phagocytosis
|
|
|
structure releases digestive enzymes in unicellular organisms
|
lysosomes
|
|
|
structure used by paramecium to sweep food into cytopharynx
|
cillia
|
|
|
structure in paramecium in which food vacuole forms
|
cytopharynx
|
|
|
chemical breakdown of food molecules is done by
|
enzyme hydrolysis
|
|
|
--- bring food to mouth for ingestion in hydra
|
tentacles
|
|
|
undigested food in cnidaria is expelled through ---
|
mouth
|
|
|
use intracellular and (mainly) extracellular digestion
|
cnidarians
*every cell is exposed to external environment |
|
|
annelids store food in ---
|
crop
|
|
|
annelids use --- to grind food
|
gizzard
|
|
|
food is passed through annelids by ---
|
diffusion
|
|
|
higher animals have a --- way digestive tract
|
one
*annelids --> |
|
|
salivary glands present in phylum ---
|
arthropoda
|
|
|
path of digestion in humans
|
oral cavity --> pharynx --> esophagus --> stomach --> small intestine --> large intestine--> anus
|
|
|
--- breakdown of food refers to mastication
|
mechanical
|
|
|
--- digestion of food refers to enzymatic breakdown of macromolecules
|
chemical
|
|
|
lubricates food to facilitate swallowing
|
saliva
|
|
|
saliva is secreted in response to --- triggered by presence of food
|
nervous reflex
|
|
|
releases mucus to protect stomach lining from harsh acidic juices
|
gastric mucosa
|
|
|
kills bacteria
dissolves intercellular glue holding food tissues together activates proteins in stomach |
HCl in stomach
|
|
|
food in stomach is known as
|
chyme
|
|
|
sphincter between stomach and duodenum
|
pyloric sphincter
|
|
|
contain capillaries and lacteals
|
villi
|
|
|
vessels of lymphatic system
|
lacteals
|
|
|
actively absorbed in small intestine
|
glucose and amino acids
|
|
|
lacteals reconvert large fatty acids into
|
3 fatty acids + glycerol
|
|
|
lipase
aminopeptidase lactase disaccharidases |
small intestine
|
|
|
cannot be digested
metabolized by bacteria |
lactose in small intestine
|
|
|
amylase
trypsin lipase |
pancreatic enzymes
|
|
|
intracellular digestion in plants through the process of
|
hydrolysis
|
|
|
closest ingestion and extracellular digestion in plant kingdom
|
venus flytrap
insect used nitrate source still AUTOtrophic |
|
|
bacteria obtain energy via
|
chemosynthesis
|
|
|
chlorophyll is located ---
|
in the thylakoid membranes
|
|
|
stacks of thylakoids are called
|
grana or granum
|
|
|
matrix of chloroplast
|
stroma
|
|
|
light capturing unit of thylakoid membrane
|
photosystem
|
|
|
P700 =
P680 = |
photosystem I
photosystem II |
|
|
coenzyme carrier in cyclic electron flow
|
ferrodioxn
|
|
|
cyclic uses photosystem --- and produces ---
|
photosystem I
ATP |
|
|
noncyclic uses photosystem ---
and produces |
photosystem I and II
ATP, O2, NADPH |
|
|
photosynthesis is a (oxidative or reductive) process
|
reductive
|
|
|
escape of high energy electrons from chlorophyll is termed---
|
photoionization
|
|
|
reduction synthesis is also known as
|
carbon fixation
|
|
|
dark reactions do not require light but occur---
|
ONLY during the day
|
|
|
product of Calvin cycle
|
3 PGAL
|
|
|
in order to produce a 3 carbon sugar from CO2 the cycle must occur --- times
|
THREE
|
|
|
CO2 enters cycle
ATP --> ADP NADPH--> NADP |
Calvin cycle
|
|
|
PGA is phosphorylated and reduced to --> by
|
PGAL
ATP and NADPH |
|
|
6 carbon molecules split to form --- PGA
|
2
|
|
|
6 turns of Calvin cycle produce --- PGAL from --- CO2 and RuBP
|
12 PGAL
6 CO2 and RuBP |
|
|
principle site of photosynthesis
|
leaves
|
|
|
conserves water and reduces transpiration
|
waxy cuticle
|
|
|
prime end product of photosynthesis
immediate food nutrient monosaccharide insoluble polysaccharide storage |
PGAL
|
|
|
chloroplast containing cells
directly under epidermis well exposed to light |
palisade layer
|
|
|
contains chloroplasts as well
air spaces below this region allow for gas diffusion |
spongy layer
|
|
|
surround each of stomata on lower surface of leaves
|
guard cells
|
|
|
increased turgor in stomata
|
open stomata
|
|
|
decreased turgor in stomata
|
closed stomata
|
|
|
permits diffusion of CO2, water vapor, and oxygen in leaves
|
stomata
|
|
|
size of stomata opening regulated by
|
guard cells
|
|
|
stomata closed at night to limit ---
|
transpiration
|
|
|
contain chloroplast
produce glucose during the day |
guard cells
|
|
|
high glucose content results in --- of stomata due to osmosis
|
turgor
|
|
|
diffusion and active transport occur in this part of the plant
|
roots
|
|
|
oxidize nitrogen, sulfur, or iron to produce glucose
|
bacteria
|
|
|
during the day, the environment of guard cells is --- relative to the guard cell cytoplasm
|
hypotonic
|
|
|
entrance of air into lungs and gas exchange between alveoli and blood
|
external respiration
|
|
|
--- respiration= exchange of gas between blood and cells
|
intracellular
|
|
|
converts energy of sun into chemical energy
vs converts chemical energy into usable energy |
photosynthesis
respiration |
|
|
dehydrogenation, removal of H atoms from organic molecules is a --- process
|
oxidative
|
|
|
lactic acid fermentation occurs in
|
human muscle cells during strenuous activity
bacteria fungi |
|
|
ethanol fermentation occurs in
|
yeast
some bacteria |
|
|
produces only 2 ATP per glucose molecule
NAD+ is regenerated pyruvate is reduced |
fermentation
|
|
|
cellular respiration includes
|
1. pyruvate decarboxylation
2. citric acid cycle 3. ETC |
|
|
electron carriers with active site similar to hemoglobin
|
cytochromes
|
|
|
Substrate level phosphorylation
Oxidative phsophorylation Total |
4 ATP (2 net)
32 ATP 36 ATP (euk) 38 ATP (prok) |
|
|
pyruvate decarboxylation is a --- reaction
|
dehydrogenation
NAD+ --> NADH CO2 is removed |
|
|
6 NADH
2 FADH2 2 GTP |
Citric Acid Cycle
|
|
|
fat in adipose tissue is stored in the form of --- and hydrolyzed to ---
|
triglyceride
fatty acid glycerol |
|
|
--- undergoes beta oxidation cycles to form acetyl CoA
|
fatty acid
|
|
|
fatty acid is converted into --- and activated in the ---
|
PGAL
cytoplasm |
|
|
transamination reaction is the --- of an amino group to form ---
|
loss
alpha keto acid |
|
|
carbon of amino acids in transamination can be converted to
|
acetyl CoA
pyruvate citric acid intermediate |
|
|
removes ammonia from amino acid
|
oxidative deamination
|
|
|
arthropod respiratory system
|
tracheae (tubes that lead to openings= spiracles)
no oxygen carrier (open circ.) |
|
|
process by which air is inhaled and exhaled
|
ventillation
muscle involved= diaphrragm |
|
|
diaphragm contracts
thoracic cavity increases in volume reduce pressure |
inhalation
|
|
|
passive process
decrease in thoracic volume increase in pressure |
exhalation
|
|
|
increase CO2, medulla is stimulated to --- rate of respiration
|
increase
|
|
|
minute blood vessels that surround alveoli
|
pulmonary capillaries
|
|
|
which gas diffuses from:
blood --> lungs alveoli air --> blood |
CO2
O2 |
|
|
takes place in simple plants when O2 is lacking
|
anaerobic respiration
|
|
|
transmits impulses away from body
|
axon
|
|
|
produce myelin in CNS
produce myelin in PNS |
oligodendrocytes
schwann cells |
|
|
Na and K pump is an example of --- transport
|
active
|
|
|
neurons are impermeable to ---
|
Na
|
|
|
resting potential
threshold potential |
-70 mV
-50 mV |
|
|
impulse propagation is unidirectional
--- prevents backward travel of action potential |
refractory period
|
|
|
what causes impulse to travel faster?
|
greater diameter
myelinated axon |
|
|
non-neuron cells that communicate with neurons
|
effector cells
muscles and glands |
|
|
fate of neurotransmitter once it is released
|
1) degraded by enzymes
2) taken back up 3) diffused out of synapse |
|
|
nerve net is found in phylum ---
|
cnidaria
|
|
|
network of nerve fibers
|
plexus
|
|
|
bundles of axons=
|
nerves
|
|
|
neuronal cell body cluster in CNS
in PNS |
nuclei
ganglia |
|
|
major component of telencephalon
|
cerebral cortex
"gray body area" |
|
|
gray matter=
white matter= |
cell bodies
myelinated |
|
|
telencephalon + diencephalon
|
prosencephalon (forebrain)
|
|
|
sensory input
motor responses olfactory bulb memory and creative thought |
forebrain
|
|
|
relay center for visual + auditory impulses
motor control |
mesencephalon (midbrain)
|
|
|
cerebellum
pon medulla |
rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
|
|
|
responsible for voluntary skeletal muscle movement
|
somatic nervous system
|
|
|
irregularly shaped cornea
|
astigmatism
|
|
|
flow of light in eye
|
cornea --> pupils --> lens -->
|
|
|
pupil diameter is controlled by
|
iris
iris responds to intensity of light in surroundings |
|
|
lens shape and focal length is controlled by
|
cilliary muscles
|
|
|
high intensity illumination
low intensity illumination |
cones
rods |
|
|
red pigment in cones
|
rhodopsin
|
|
|
photoreceptor cells synapse onto --- which in turn synapse on to
|
bipolar cells
ganglion cells |
|
|
no photoreceptors present here
|
blind spot
point at which optic nerve exits the eye |
|
|
densely packed with cone receptors
important for high acuity vision |
fovea
|
|
|
helps maintain shape of eye and optical properties
|
vitreous humor
|
|
|
functions in converting sound energy to impulses in the brain
|
ear
|
|
|
flow of sound in ear
|
auricle (external ear) --> auditory canal --> tympanic membrane --> ossicles --> oval window --> cochlea and vestibular apparatus
|
|
|
amplifies sound stimulus
|
ossicles
|
|
|
transduces pressure into action potential in ear
|
cochlea
|
|
|
connects ear to brain
|
eustachian tube
|
|
|
autonomic muscles
somatic muscles |
smooth and cardiac
skeletal |
|
|
acts as a means of internal communication
coordinates activities of organ systems |
endocrine systems
|
|
|
transport of chemicals directly
transports of chemicals indirectly |
endocrine system
exocrine (via ducts) |
|
|
heart
testes ovaries pineal kidneys |
examples of glands
|
|
|
adrenal glands
|
adrenal cortex
adrenal medulla |
|
|
release mineral corticoids and glucocorticoids
|
adrenal cortex
|
|
|
mineral corticoids
|
aldosterone
raises blood volume and pressure |
|
|
glucocorticoid
|
cortisol
raises blood sugar levels by increasing glucogenesis glucogenesis= amino acids --> glucose |
|
|
corticol sex hormone released by adrenal cortex
|
androgen
small effects on males masculizing effects on femals |
|
|
epinephrine and norepinephrine
amino acid derived compounds released by adrenal medulla |
catecholamines
|
|
|
converts glycogen to glucose
(glycogenolysis) converts amino acids to glucose (glycogenesis) |
epinephrine
glucocorticoid |
|
|
sex steroids and glucocorticoids under control of
aldosterone under control of |
ACTH (anterior pituitary)
different mechanism (renin) |
|
|
stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones
|
tropic
|
|
|
direct hormones released by anterior pituitary glands
|
Prolactin
Endorphins (enkephalins) Growth Hormones |
|
|
acromegaly
|
gigantism
|
|
|
stimulates maturation of seminferous tubules and sperm production
|
FSH
|
|
|
stimulates cells of testes to synthesize testosterone
|
LH
|
|
|
located in intermediate lobe of pituitary gland
causes darkening of skin in animals |
melanocyte stimulating hormone
|
|
|
--- feedback inhibition involved in hypothalamus
|
negative
|
|
|
thyroxine is derived from what
|
amino acid
(tyrosine) |
|
|
hypothyroidism in infants
|
cretinism
mental retardation short stature |
|
|
causes goiter formation
|
hyperthyroidism
hypothyroidism |
|
|
releases calcitonin
|
thyroid hormone
|
|
|
diabetes mellitus
|
high blood glucose
*hyperglycemia |
|
|
stimulates excretion of phosphate by kidneys
|
parathyroid hormone
* -releases calcium in bone which is bonded to phosphate -phosphate released in body -compensated by excretion of phosphate by kidneys |
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gastrin
secretin CCK |
stimulates glands to secrete HCl
released when acidic food enters small intestine released by small intestine in presence of fats and bile |
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released by pineal gland
regulates circadian rhythms lightens skin antagonist to MSH |
melatonin
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activates cAMP
inactivates cAMP |
adenylate cyclase
phosphodiesterase |
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produces plant hormones
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meristematic tissues
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auxin associated with phototropism
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indoleacetic acid
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responsible for phototropism
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auxins
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light strikes plant, auxin supply on that side is ---
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reduced
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causes shoots to grow upward away from acceleration of gravity
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negative geotropism
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gravity increases concentration of auxin on --- side
gravity decreases auxin on --- side |
lower upper |
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causes roots to grow towards the pull of gravity
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positive geotropism
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stimulate production of xylem
help maintain apical growth |
auxins
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rapid stem elongation
stimulate new phloem end dormancy |
gibberellins
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block cell division in plants
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inhibitors
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most important inhibitor
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abscisic acid
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regulate activity of auxins
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anti-auxins
directly proportional |
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regulates concentration of indoleacetic acid
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indoleaetic acid oxidase
directly proportional |
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stimulates fruit ripening
stimulates senescence (aging) |
ethylene
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lower side of plant elongates faster in
lower side of plant elongates slower in |
negative geotropism
positive geotropism |
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raise blood volume
reabsorption of water |
aldosterone
ADH |
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exchange of gasses in sinuses
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arthropods
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lack red blood cells
hemoglobin type pigment |
annelids
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atria are --- walled
ventricles are --- walled |
thin
thick |
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thin walled
inelastic conduct deoxygenated blood |
veins
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thick walled
elastic carry oxygenated blood |
arteries
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filter lymph
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leukocytes (phagocytic cells)
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cellular components of blood
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leukocytes
platelets erythrocytes |
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primary form of oxygen transport in blood
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oxyhemoglobin
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cell fragments lack nuclei
involved in clotting |
platelets
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fluid left after clotting is known as
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serum
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clotting factor
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thromboplastin
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cofactors of thromboplastin
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vitamin K
calcium |
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antibodies cause antigens to clump together or ---, and form large insoluble complexes to be phagocytized
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agglutinate
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associated with passive immunity
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gamma globulin
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type of immunity:
transfer of antibodies produced by another individual or organism |
passive immunity
ex: injection or placenta |
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productino of antibodies during immune response
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active immunity
*vaccination |
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proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens and trigger immune system to remove them
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immunoglobulins
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non-specific defense mehcanisms
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skin: sweat enzymes attack bacteria cell walls
mucous-coated epithelia: filter and trap foreign particles inflammatory response: releases histamine which increases blood flow granulocytes: phagocyticize antigenic material interferons: proteins that prevent spread of virus |
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if donor antigens are not in recipients blood --- occurs
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clumping
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--- anitbodies cross placenta
--- antibodies do not cross placenta |
Rh= cross
AB= do not cross |
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Type A blood
Type AB blood Type O blood |
Antigen A Antibody B
Antigen A/B None None Antibody A/B |
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erythroblastosis fetalis
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maternal anti-Rh bodies cross placenta and destroy fetal red blood cells
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allows for rise of water in xylem
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transpiration
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carriers water and minerals up
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xylem
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water entering root hairs exerts a pressure
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root pressure
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any liquid in a thin tube will rise due to surface tension of liquid and interactions between liquid and tube
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capillary action
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thick walled
inside of vascular bundle |
xylem
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thin walled
outside of vascular bundle |
phloem
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include
1) sieve tube cells 2) companion cells |
phloem cells
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actively dividing, undifferentiated cells which give rise to xylem and phloem
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cambium
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differentiated xylem cells
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1) vessels
2) tracheids |
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absorbs materials and anchors plant
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root
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increases surface area for absorption of water and minerals
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root hairs
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phloem --> cambium --> xylem
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fibrovascular bundle
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lateral meristem
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cambium
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increase in length
increase in diameter |
apical meristem
lateral meristem |
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study of development of unicellular zygotes into multicellular organism
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embryology
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sea urchins and frogs used to study ---
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zygote cell differentiation
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egg is fertillized --- hours after ovulation
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12-24
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where in the oviduct does fertillization occur
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widest portion
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rapid mitotic divisions undergone by zygote
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cleavage
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total volume of --- remains constant during cleavage while --- increases
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protoplasm= constant
cell number= increases |
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greatest nuclear to cytoplasmic material ratio during ---
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blastulation
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result of indeterminate cleavage
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identical twins
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result of more than one egg being fertillized
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fraternal twins
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1st cleavage --> 32 hrs
2nd cleavage --> 60 hrs 3rd cleavage --> 72 hrs |
2 cells
4 cells 8 cells |
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solid ball of embryo
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morula
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process where morula develops fluid filled cavity
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blastulation
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hollow ball of cell, blastula, forms in --- days
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4 days
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develop in the mother without a placenta
limited food and gas exchange |
marsupials
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two components of placental internal development
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umbilical cord
placenta |
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acts as shock absorber of external pressure from uterine contractions during labor
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amniotic fluid
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umbilical cord and placenta are outgrowths of ---
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4 extra-embryonic membranes
chorion, allantois, amnion, and yolk sac |
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enlarge and become umbilical blood vessels
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allantois
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site of early development of blood vessels
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yolk sac
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membrane completely surrounds amnion
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chorion
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series of strong uterine contractions
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labor
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maturation is suspended in ---
maturation is uninterrupted in -- |
arthropods (pupal stage)
mammals |
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blastula impants in uterus
embryo implants outside uterus |
normal pregnancy
ectopic --> abortion |
