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288 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the study of anatomy refers to the study of the ________
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structure of body parts
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the study of anatomy includes what to types of anatomy?
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gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy
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identification of unaided visual means
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gross anatomy
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identification by microscopic assistance, usually involving the cellular level
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microscopic anatomy
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the study of the functions of the body
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physiology
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physiology includes what two forms?
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biophysical and biochemical processes
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highly organized chemical systems
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cells
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3 basic components of a cell?
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plasma membrane (cell membrane), cytoplasm, nucleus
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contains the cell and provides limits
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cell membrane
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separates the cytoplasm of the cell from the interstitial fluid located between the cells
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cell membrane
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are cell membranes usually pliable?
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yes
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what are cell membranes made out of?
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phospholipids and proteins
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phospholipid molecules occur in how many layers?
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2
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protein molecules may be associated with either the _____ or the _____ layer
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outer. inner.
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proteins may penetrate _____ or _____
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completely or incompletely
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homogenous ground substance that forms the background in which the formed elements are suspended
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cytoplasm
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location of diverse metabolic activities and is filled with both minute and large dispersed particles and organelles
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cytoplasm
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what are these: cell membrane, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, centrioles
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organelles
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organelles assist the cytoplasm with its metabolic activities by what 7 things?
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receiving materials into the cell. synthesizing new substances. generating energy. packing materials for transport to other parts of the cell or to the circulation. excretion of wastes. reproduction.
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control center for chemical reactions
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nucleus
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the nucleus contains large quantities of _____
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DNA
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the nucleus has how many nucleoli?
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one or more
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does the nucleus contain chromatin?
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yes
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surrounded by 2 nuclear membranes of which the outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
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nucleus
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the outer membrane of the nucleus is continuous with what?
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the endoplasmic reticulum
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how many membranes surround the nucleus?
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2
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the lumen of the nucleus is continuous with what?
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lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum
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the nucleus contains _____ nuclear pores
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many
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the nucleoli contain large amounts of _____
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RNA
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network of tubular and vesicular structures interconnected within the cytoplasm
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endoplasmic reticulum
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the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with what?
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nuclear envelope lumen
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the granular portion of the endoplasmic reticulum has large amounts of what attached to the outer surface?
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ribosomes
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the granular portion of the endoplasmic reticulum has the function of what?
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synthesize proteins
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ribosomes are composed of _____ and ____
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RNA and protein
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does the agranular portion of the endoplasmic reticulum have ribosomes attached?
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no
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the agranular portion of the endoplasmic reticulum does what?
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synthesize lipids and enzymatic processes
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closely related to the ER
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Golgi apparatus
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prominent in secretory cells, cells secreting enzymes and hormones
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Golgi apparatus
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vesicles from the ER fuse with the _____ and form ____
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Golgi apparatus. lysosomes.
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_____ are released to the cytoplasm and are stored or moved to the cell membrane and released as a secretion
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lysosomes
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where energy production hapens
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mitochondria
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increase in number as energy increases
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mitochondria
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the mitochondria contains an inner membrane with attachments for _____
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oxidative phosphorylation enzymes
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this part of the mitochondria is the site for the citric acid cycle
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matrix
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vesicular organelles formed by the Golgi apparatus
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lysosomes
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are lysosomes dispersed throughout the cytoplasm?
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yes
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do lysosomes contain digestive enzymes?
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yes
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intracellular digestive system
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lysosomes
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product for secretion
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lysosomes
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how many centrioles are there per cell?
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typically 2
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located at the centrosomes, an area free of ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
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centrioles
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is the centriole involved with cell division?
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yes
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centrioles are oriented at ____ from eachother
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right angles
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each centriole consists of ____ groups _____ microtubules in a circle
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9 groups. 3 microtubules.
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cells without centrioles cannot replace themselves by doing what?
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cell division
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mitochondria energy is released by what?
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controlled metabolic oxidation
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Co A produced from glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
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Acetyl
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catabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
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aerobic stage
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oxidation occurs within the _____
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matrix of the mitochondria
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involves electron removal and transfer cofactors nicotinomide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
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oxidation of acetyl groups
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cofactors are reduced to ____ and ___
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FADH and NADH
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where are electron transfer chain electron receptors?
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inner membrane of mitochondria
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adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in what process?
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oxidative phosphorylation
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ATP is synthesized from what?
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ADP
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____ and _____ are reoxidized and hydrogen ions combined with oxygen to form water
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NADH and FADH
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where are chromosomes located?
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nucleus
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made up of 2 polynucleotide chains containing purine bases and pyrimidine bases
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DNA
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made up of a large molecule of DNA in a double helix
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chromosome
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what are the 2 purine bases?
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adenine and guanine
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what are the 2 pyrimidine bases?
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thymine and cytosine
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formed by one phosphoric acid, one deoxyribose and one of the 4 bases
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nucleotide
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the chains of DNA are bound together by____ bonding between the bases
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hydrogen
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adenine bonds to what?
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thymine
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cytosine bonds to what?
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guanine
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proteins that form ionic bonds that form the coiling of the DNA
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histones
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combination of DNA and histones
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chromatin
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begins by loosening of the histone bonds then splitting of the complementary bases
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replication
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each strand is then paired with a new complimentary strand forming what?
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two new double helixes
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where 2 new chromosomes remain attached at a point near their center called the what
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centromere
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duplicated but attached chromosomes
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chromatids
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cell division involving nuclear division and cytoplasm fission
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mitosis
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what are the 4 sequences of mitosis
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prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
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what happens in prophase (4 things)
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chromatin condenses into chromosomes. mitotic spindles form and push chromosomes apart. centrosomes separate further and asters, radiating fibers appear. nuclear membrane disappears.
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what happens in metaphase? (2 things)
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centrioles push closer to their poles. chromatids align at center of the cell
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what happens in anaphase? (2 things)
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centromere of each chromatid separates which creates daughter chromatids. move to opposite poles, pulled by spindle microtubules attached to centromeres.
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what happens in telophase? (4 things)
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daughter chromosomes reach opposite poles. mitocetic spindles disappear. nuclear membrane forms around each set. two daughter cells form by cell division
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controls the formation of cell proteins
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genes from DNA
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does not transfer into the cytoplasm due to large size and inability to enter the cytoplasm
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DNA
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is DNA in the nucleus able to directly control protein synthesis in cytoplasm
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no
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these molecules are synthesized from DNA in the nucleus, then transferred into the cytoplasm
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RNA
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study of prenatal development of an individual
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embryology
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first event of reproduction at the cellular level
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fertilization
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fertilization occurs between what two things
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female oocyte and male sperm
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development beyond fertilization proceeds by what?
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mitosis
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after mitosis what happens?
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zygote forms and develops into morula and blastula
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blastula develop a cavity called a what
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blastocele
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forms when uterine fluid diffuses into the spaces between the cells of the morula
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blastocele
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as the fluid accumulates to form the blastocele it gradually sepates the cells into an outer layer (whats it called?) and an inner cell mass that forms the body of the what?
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(trophoblast). EMBRYO.
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mRNA movies into the cytoplasm through nuclear pores and caries the code for protein synthesis (transcription) and attaches to ER ribosome |
1st step of protein synthesis |
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tRNA is synthesized by DNA and moves into the cytoplasm, picks up an amino avid and attaches with mRNA at the ER ribosome (translation) |
2nd step of protein synthesis |
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rRNA is found in ribosomes which are at the ER and believed to provide a physical structure on which protein is formed |
3rd step of protein synthesis |
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tRNA is synthesized by DNA and moves into the cytoplasm, picks up an amino avid and attaches with mRNA at the ER ribosome (translation) |
2nd step of protein synthesis |
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rRNA is found in ribosomes which are at the ER and believed to provide a physical structure on which protein is formed |
3rd step of protein synthesis |
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Utilized for cell structures, functions, enzymes, hormones |
Synthesized proteins |
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Utilized for cell structures, functions, enzymes, hormones |
Synthesized proteins |
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Why are synthesized proteins specific to each individual animal? |
Nuclear DNA transfer |
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Results in allergies, tissue rejection, and other incompatibilities |
Introduction of proteins foreign to an animal |
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The ____ forms the body of the embryo |
Inner Cell Mass |
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The ____ forms the body of the embryo |
Inner Cell Mass |
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Portion of the inner cell mass closest to the trophoblast |
Epiblast |
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Portion adjacent to the blastocele |
Hypoblast |
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Cavity formed dorsal to the epiblast |
Amnionic cavity |
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Outer cell layer of the embryo |
Trophoblast |
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The trophoblast contributes to the ____ (which is what?) |
Placenta (extraemryonic membranes) |
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The ____ enables the embryo to be secured within the uterus |
Fetal placenta |
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Also provides maternal connection providing fetal nutrition |
Fetal placenta |
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The ____ enables the embryo to be secured within the uterus |
Fetal placenta |
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Also provides maternal connection providing fetal nutrition |
Fetal placenta |
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Source of all body structures |
Germ layer |
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First segregation of cell groups clearly distinct from one another by way of their definite relations within the embryo |
Germ layer development |
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Proliferating hypiblast cells migrate to line the blastocele does what? |
Forms the endoderm |
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The endoderm is a lining that grows into the blastocele and generates what? |
Lungs, gut, liver, and other visceral organs |
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Develops from proliferating outer cells of the inner cell mass (epiblast cells) and migrated toward a longitudinal axis location known as the primaries streak, a thinking of epiblast cells |
Ectoderm |
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The ectoderm forms what? |
Skin (hair, hooves,mammary glands) and entire nervous system |
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Grows between the ectoderm and endoderm and splits into 2 layers that form a cavity between the coelom (precursor of body cavities) |
The mesoderm |
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The mesoderm develops what? |
Skeletal muscle, smooth Mescalero, cardiac muscle, kidneys, skeleton, other connective tissues |
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The basic units of structure within the body involve what? (4 things) |
Cell, tissues, organs, body systems |
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The basic units of structure within the body involve what? (4 things) |
Cell, tissues, organs, body systems |
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Composed of cells having similar features of structure and function |
Tissues |
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Composed of two or more tissues combined to perform certain functions |
Organs |
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Combinations of organs similar or related functions working together as a unit |
Body systems |
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4 basic body tissues? |
Epithelial (epithelium), connective, nervous, muscle |
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These tissues cover the body surface (skin), line body cavities, form glands, other structures (hair, hooves, horns) |
Epithelial |
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This tissue type generally originates from ectoderm or endoderm |
Epithelium |
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This tissue contacts a no cellular basement membrane which adheres the cells to underlying connective tissue for more strength |
Epithelial |
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These tissues are not vascular. They require nutrition to eliminate waste products by diffusion through blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue |
Epithelial |
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This type of tissue is classified by number of cell layers and surface cell shape |
Epithelial |
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One layer of epithelium |
Simple epithelium |
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Two or more layers of epithelium |
Stratified epithelium |
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Thin and platelike |
Squamous |
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Appear square |
Cuboidal |
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Cells are taller than their width |
Columnar |
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5 terms to classify epithelium? |
Simple, stratified, squamous, cuboidal, columnar |
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Single layer of thin, flat irregular shaped cells, cemented together forming a continuous thin membrane |
Simple squamous epithelium |
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Does not withstand wear but performs filtering functions (portions of the kidney tubules) |
Simple squamous epithelium |
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Three tissues that resemble simple squamous epithelium but differ due to mesoderm origin |
Endothelium, mesothelium, mesenchymal |
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Three tissues that resemble simple squamous epithelium but differ due to mesoderm origin |
Endothelium, mesothelium, mesenchymal |
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Simple squamous forms the linings of the heart, blood vessels, and lymohatics |
Endothelium |
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Simple squamous that lines the body cavities, pleura and peritoneum |
Mesothelium |
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Lines subarachnoid space of the brain and eye chambers |
Mesenchymal |
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Widely distributed tussue |
Simple cuboidal epithelium |
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Found in tissue such as the choroid plexus of the nervous system, the outer covering of the nervous system, the outer covering of the ovary, lining the follicles in the thyroid |
Simple cuboidal epithelium |
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Provides the lining for the digestive tract (cells may be absorptive or secretory or both) |
Simple columnar epithelium |
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Common secretory function invokes secrets ion of mucus on epithelial membranes |
Simple columnar epithelium |
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Certain tissues involve simple columnar ciliates cells called what? |
Oviducts |
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These tissues appear to consist of multiple layers but only contain one layer |
Psedostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells |
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These tissues appear to consist of multiple layers but only contain one layer |
Psedostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells |
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The stratified appearance of pseudostatified ciliated columnar with goblet cells is created by what? (Could be found where) |
Overlapping of short cell by tall cells. (Respiratory tract) |
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This tissue is common to the lining of the urinary bladder |
Transitional epithelium |
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When the bladder contacts this layer of tissue is contacted into a multiple layer appearance |
Transitional epithelium |
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When the bladder is stretched how many layers of transitional epithelium can be seen? |
Two or three layers |
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This provides internal linings with protection withstanding wear and tear. (Where can this be found) |
Stratified squamous nonkeratinizing epithelium. (Mouth, esophagus, anus, vagina) |
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The epidermis of skin is what kind of epithelial tissue? |
Stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium |
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The superficial cells are keratinized or fused together |
Stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium |
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When the superficial cells are keratinized what happens? |
Minimizes fluid loss from the body due to evoparation and provides protection from wear and tear |
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Glands that have secretions outside of the body and utilize ducts |
Exocrine |
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These glands must be provided with ducts, tubes that convey the secretions to the body surface |
Exocrine |
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Glands that secrete within the body and do not utilize ducts. Ductless glands. |
Endocrine |
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Surface epithelial cells grow into the connective tissue beneath the membrane |
1st step of gland development |
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After invasion of the epithelial cells, the gland forms by further proliferation and differentiation |
2nd step of gland development |
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Connection with the surface, tubule, is maintained forming an expecting gland |
Last step to form an endocrine gland |
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Connection with the surface, tubule, is maintained forming an expecting gland |
Last step to form an endocrine gland |
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The surface connection is eliminated allowing secretory unit access to a central cavity or lumen forming an endocrine gland |
Last step to forming an endocrine gland |
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What 3 secretory functions can glands by described by? |
Holocrine, merocrine, apocrine |
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A cell within these types of glands accumulates secretory products within its cytoplasm. The cell does and dose regranted. The dreads cell and it's products constitute a secretion. |
Holocrine glands |
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What 3 secretory functions can glands by described by? |
Holocrine, merocrine, apocrine |
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A cell within these types of glands accumulates secretory products within its cytoplasm. The cell does and dose regranted. The dreads cell and it's products constitute a secretion. (Where can you find these?) |
Holocrine glands. (Skin sebaceous glands of oil producing glands on the scalp) |
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The secretions of this gland occur without cell loss |
Merocrine gland |
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Secreations pass from the cell cytoplasm through cytoplasmic inclusions into the secretory lumen. No cytoplasm is lost. (Where can you find these?) |
Merocrine glands. (Pancreas and salivary) |
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These glands are intermediate between holocrine and merocrine. Secretions gather at the outer ends of the gland and pinch off to form secretions. (Where can you find these?) |
Apocrine. (Mammary glands and some sweat glands). |
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Consist of a surface layer of epithelium and an underlying layer of connective tissue |
Epithelial membranes |
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2 kinds of epithelial membranes that are important in the body? |
Mucous membranes and serous membranes |
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Referred to as mucosa, supported by underlying connective tissue, lamina propria. |
Mucous membranes |
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Line the hollow organs and cavities that open in the skin and surface of the body |
Mucous membranes |
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What type of membrane lines the digestive tract, respiratory tract, urinary tract, and the reproductive system? |
Mucous membrane |
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The surface of these membranes are always kept moist by mucous. Originated from ectoderm and endoderm. |
Mucous membranes |
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What are the two things that qualify as the first line of defense (physical barriers) |
Mucous membranes and hair in the nose that act as a coarse filter |
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What are the two things that qualify as the first line of defense (physical barriers) |
Mucous membranes and hair in the nose that act as a coarse filter |
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The inner surfaces of the body are guarded by ________ that line the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems and protect the internal lining |
Mucous membranes |
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Are mucous membranes more vulnerable than skin? |
Yes |
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Referred to as serial and lines the body cavities and covers the surfaces of related organs |
Serous membrane |
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The surface epithelium is mesothelium over a thin layer of loose connective tissue making it what kind of membrane? |
Serous |
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This membrane originated from the mesoderm and makes up the pleura, pericardium, peritoneum |
Serous membrane |
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Referred to as serial and lines the body cavities and covers the surfaces of related organs |
Serous membrane |
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The surface epithelium is mesothelium over a thin layer of loose connective tissue making it what kind of membrane? |
Serous |
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This membrane originated from the mesoderm and makes up the pleura, pericardium, peritoneum |
Serous membrane |
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Lining of the thorax |
Pleura |
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Lining around the heart |
Pericardium |
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Lining of the abdomen |
Peritoneum |
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This membrane is made up of simple squamous epithelium + areolar connective tissue |
Serous membrane |
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2 layers of serous membrane? |
Outer layer (parietal serosa) inner layer (visceral serosa) |
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What is between the 2 layers of serous membrane? |
Serous cavity containing serous fluid |
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What makes up the serous fluid? |
Blood filtrate + secretions by 2 layers of membrane |
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Allows for movement of organs with reduced friction |
Serous fluid |
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What makes up the serous fluid? |
Blood filtrate + secretions by 2 layers of membrane |
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Allows for movement of organs with reduced friction |
Serous fluid |
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Represents many different tissue types that all originate from mesoderm |
Connective tissue |
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Production of intercellular substances-cartilage and bone. Store fat (adipocytes). Production of various blood cells (phagocytosis and antibody production) |
Connective tissue functions |
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This tissue connects other types of tissues and can be classified as loose or dense |
Ordinary connective tissue |
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This type of connective tissue is widely distributed in the body making up subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia. Penetrates between organs to fill up space and bind structures together. Allows for movement of muscles relative to each other. |
Loose connective tissue |
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In this tissue type fibroblasts produce the intracellulsr substance of ordinary connective tissue. |
Loose connective tissues |
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Less active later in life fibroblasts are called what? |
Fibroclasts |
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What are these?: collagenous or white fibers, elastic or yellow fibers, reticular fibers, amorphous ground substance |
Intracellular substance of loose connective tissue |
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These are white fibers are appear as wavy ribbons, strong and inelastic, composed of collagen |
Collagenous fibers |
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What are these?: collagenous or white fibers, elastic or yellow fibers, reticular fibers, amorphous ground substance |
Intracellular substance of loose connective tissue |
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These are white fibers are appear as wavy ribbons, strong and inelastic, composed of collagen |
Collagenous fibers |
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These are yellow fibers that are long cylindrical threads or flat ribbons that tend to regain shape after being stretched. Formed in elastic arteries and mixed with other tissues where elasticity is necessary |
Elastic fibers |
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These are fine highly branched inelastic fibers that make up portions of the endocrine and lymphatic organ networks and are embedded in amorphous ground substance. |
Reticular fibers |
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Reticular fibers form networks where structures are adjacent to connective tissue in places such as where? |
Along blood vessels, in basements of membranes, around nerve cells, around muscle cells, around fat cells |
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Means without shape |
Amorphous |
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Imbeds or surrounds reticular connective tissue fibers with viscosity varying from fluids to gel |
Amorphous ground substance |
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Means without shape |
Amorphous |
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Imbeds or surrounds reticular connective tissue fibers with viscosity varying from fluids to gel |
Amorphous ground substance |
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Contain essentially the same fiber elements as loose connective tissue. (2 different types?) |
Dense connective tissue. (Dense regular and dense irregular) |
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Regularity in dense connective tissue related to what? |
Arrangement of the fiber elements |
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These dense regular connective tissue Fibers are arranged in parallel bundles (especially collagenous fibers) |
Tendons |
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These dense regular connective tissue collagenous fibers are not as regularly arranged like tendons and they may be mixed with elastic fibers. |
Ligaments |
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The collagenous fibers of this tissue are interwoven and compacted forming a dense matting. (Example: dermis is used for leather) |
Dense irregular connective tissue |
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Toward the head |
Cranial |
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Toward the tail |
Caudal |
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Within it involving the head, toward the nose |
Rostral |
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Toward the head |
Cranial |
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Toward the tail |
Caudal |
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Within it involving the head, toward the nose |
Rostral |
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Passes through the body craniocaudally and divides the body into equal right and left halves |
Median plane |
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Any plane parallel to the median plane either to the right or the left of the median plane |
Sagittal plane |
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At right angles to the median plane and divides the body into cranial and caudal parts |
Transverse |
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At right angles to both the median and transverse planes and divides the body into dorsal and ventral halves |
Horizontal plane |
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Pertains to the back or upper surface of the animal. Also indicates the position of one structure relative to another. |
Dorsal |
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Pertains to the undersurface of the animal. Also indicates position of one structure relative to another. |
Ventral |
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Related to the middle or center, nearer to the median plane |
Medial |
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Relates to the outside or away from the body |
Lateral |
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Pertains to the surface or a structure near the surface |
Superficial |
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Refers to a structure situated at a deeper level in relation to a specific reference point |
Deep |
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Related to the middle or center, nearer to the median plane |
Medial |
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Relates to the outside or away from the body |
Lateral |
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Pertains to the surface or a structure near the surface |
Superficial |
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Refers to a structure situated at a deeper level in relation to a specific reference point |
Deep |
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When referring to a limb or other structure, the location is nearest the center of the body or origin point |
Proximal |
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When referring to a limb or other structure the location is farthest from the center of the body or point of origin |
Distal |
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Refers to the caudal surface of the forelimb distal to the carpus |
Palmar |
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Refers to the caudal surface of the hindlimb distal to the tarsus |
Plantar |
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Related to the middle or center, nearer to the median plane |
Medial |
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Relates to the outside or away from the body |
Lateral |
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Pertains to the surface or a structure near the surface |
Superficial |
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Refers to a structure situated at a deeper level in relation to a specific reference point |
Deep |
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When referring to a limb or other structure, the location is nearest the center of the body or origin point |
Proximal |
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When referring to a limb or other structure the location is farthest from the center of the body or point of origin |
Distal |
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Refers to the caudal surface of the forelimb distal to the carpus |
Palmar |
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Refers to the caudal surface of the hindlimb distal to the tarsus |
Plantar |
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Refers to a position in which the central aspect of the body or an extremity is uppermost |
Prone |
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Refers to a position in which the central aspect of the body is Palmer or plantar aspect of an extremity is uppermost |
Supine |
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Median view shows what 2 body cavities? |
Dorsal and ventral |
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The cranial and the vertebral cavities are considered what main cavity? |
Dorsal cavity |
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This cavity contains the brain |
Cranial cavity |
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This cavity contains the spinal cord |
Vertebral cavity |
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Median view shows what 2 body cavities? |
Dorsal and ventral |
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The cranial and the vertebral cavities are considered what main cavity? |
Dorsal cavity |
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This cavity contains the brain |
Cranial cavity |
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This cavity contains the spinal cord |
Vertebral cavity |
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This cavity is subdivided by the diaphragm |
Ventral cavity |
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The thoracic, abdominal, and pelvis cavities make up what main cavity? |
Ventral cavity |
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Median view shows what 2 body cavities? |
Dorsal and ventral |
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This pleura involves both the mediastinal and costal pleura |
Parietal pleura |
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The cranial and the vertebral cavities are considered what main cavity? |
Dorsal cavity |
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This cavity contains the brain |
Cranial cavity |
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This cavity contains the spinal cord |
Vertebral cavity |
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This cavity is subdivided by the diaphragm |
Ventral cavity |
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The thoracic, abdominal, and pelvis cavities make up what main cavity? |
Ventral cavity |
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The thoracic cavity is made up of two later chambers of _____ cavities |
Pleural |
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This type of pleura covers the lungs |
Visceral |
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This type of pleura covers the inner portion of the partition between the two pleura cavities forming the mediastinal space |
Mediastinak pleura |
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This type of pleura is continuous of the mediastinal pleura but covers the outer side of the pleural cavities between the visceral pleura and wall of the thorax |
Costal pleura |
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Lines the abdominal cavity and extends into the pelvic cavity |
Peritoneum |
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Contains folds consisting of varying amounts of connective tissue, fat, and lymph glands that provide pathway for vessels and nerves of the organs |
Peritoneum |
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Fold that passes from the stomach to other viscera |
Omentum |
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Fold that attaches the intestine to the dorsal body wall |
Mesentary |
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Folds that pass between viscera, other parts of the digestive tube, or connect them with the abdominal wall |
Ligaments |
