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59 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Name the two major lineages of amniotes. What organisms belong to each group?
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The two major lineages are:
Sauropsida (dinosaurs, modern reptiles) Synapsidia (subclass of Reptillia,therapsids, modern mammals) |
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How are anapsids, synapsids, and diapsids different?
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Anapsids--primative, the first amniotes (turtles)
Synapsids--mammalian ancestors Diapsids--dinosuars, leading to modern reptiles (except for turtles) and birds. |
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What are mesosuars?
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Mesosauria, subclass Reptilia
lived during the late Permian Period. (245 MYA) was secondarily aquatic, had paddle shaped feet and a laterally compressed tail. Thought to be a filter feeder. |
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What are testudines and to what subclass of Reptilia do they belong?
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Testudines are Suaropsids, of the subclass Parareptilia.
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Describe testudines.
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Turtles are the only extant members of the Order Testudinata (Testudines). First appeared in the late Triassic Period. (210 MYA). Distinctive shell with CARAPACE (expanded ribs and surface epidermal plates called "Scutes") and a ventral plastron.
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How are the members of Eurereptilia different?
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Includes all modern reptiles EXCEPT for turtles.
includes Archosauromorpha (birds, dinosaurs, and crocidilians) and Lepidosauromorpha (snakes and lizards) |
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What infraclass do ichthyosaurs belong?
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Ichthyopterygia
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Archosauromorpha
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birds, dinosaurs, and crocidilians
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Describe the class Aves
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Part of the dinosaur radiation. They outnumber all vertebrates except fishes. They are pandemic and endothermic. "Derived diapsids" and "glorified reptiles". Most closely related to crocodiles. (Shelled eggs, similar bone and muscle structure.) Have feathers and most have flight.
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Why are members of the class Aves referred to as "glorified reptiles" and "derived dispids"?
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Thomas Huxley classified birds into the class Reptilia, calling them glorified reptiles. They had all characteristics of reptiles and therefore were classified as such. Dinosaurs are considered diapsids, and therefore, since Aves class is said to be classified as Reptiles, there are therefore derived from dinosaurs making them "derived diapsids".
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What characteristic separates class Aves from all other Vertebrates?
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feathers
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How are members of Synapsidia different from those of Sauropsidia?
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Synapsidia is commonly referred to as mammal-like reptiles and gave rise to modern mammals. Sauropsidia include all modern reptiles and did not make a ectothermic to endothermic transition.
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What are the two major groups within Synapsidia?
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Pelycosauria (sail-backed reptiles)
Therapsidia (mammal like reptiles) |
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What characteristics distinguish therapsids?
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quadrapedal, pentadactyl (five toed limbs), limbs under body (more efficient locomotion)distinct types of teeth for feeding specializations.
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From what group are modern mammals derived?
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Therapsids
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Can you describe characteristics unique to mammals?
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-hair
-mammary glands -sweat and sebaceous glands -anucleate red blood cells |
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What are the three extant groups of mammals? How do they differ?
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Monotremes-- one hole, single cloacal opening. Subclass Protheria. Lay eggs. (Platypus)
Marsupials--marsupium; "metatherian=yolk sac" Subclass Theria. Kangeroos and Opossums Placentals-- chorioallantoic placenta, Subclass Eutheria (foxes, weasles, etc) |
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What is scaling?
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understanding anatomical size and its consequences, more than just making parts larger or smaller. demands on body structure that change in disproportionate ways with changes in body size. (gravity and force, metabolic demands)
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Can you describe some physical challenges directly related to size?
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demands on body structure that change in disproportionate ways with changes in body size. (gravity and force, metabolic demands)
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Make sure you understand the concepts of surface area, volume and length and how they change relative to changes in size.
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body mass is directly proportional to body volume.
as an animal grows, its proportions are likely to change. Digestion, mastication--enzymatic action. absorption (folds, villi, microvilli), length (carnivore vs herbivore, small vs large) Respriation, gas exchange at lungs. gas transport via RBCs. (shape of RBCs is ideal for fitting thru capilaries, high surface area), gas exchange at tissues. Flight/Swimming Performance hydrodynamics, aerodynamics. Drag (caused by friction, pressure), Lift and Thrust to overcome drag or gravity. Locomotion Cilia in small aquatic organisms vs modes in larger organisms. Body Temperature POLAR BEARS!! heat loss/retention in large vs. small organisms. |
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Can you describe some anatomical and physiological examples where surface area is important to function?
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Digestion, mastication--enzymatic action. absorption (folds, villi, microvilli), length (carnivore vs herbivore, small vs large)
Respriation, gas exchange at lungs. gas transport via RBCs. (shape of RBCs is ideal for fitting thru capilaries, high surface area), gas exchange at tissues. Flight/Swimming Performance hydrodynamics, aerodynamics. Drag (caused by friction, pressure), Lift and Thrust to overcome drag or gravity. Locomotion Cilia in small aquatic organisms vs modes in larger organisms. Body Temperature POLAR BEARS!! heat loss/retention in large vs. small organisms. |
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What challenges do land vertebrates face when considering body mass and size?
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>body's mass must be supported by the limbs. Strength of limbs is proportional to the cross sectional area. changes in mass create potential problems in support by the cross-sectional area of the limbs. bone remodeling. (osteoblasts-create new osteons, osteoclasts break down old bone, done in response to physical stresses) [bone remodeling ceases in space because there is no gravitational force acting on bones.] Bones are scaled in proportion to the mass that they must support, larger animals have relatively more massive bones than do smaller animals. (Beached whales skeleton cannot support their internal structures for very long out of the water. Different pressure changes.
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What is allometry?
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the change in correlation to a change in size. relative term. negative or positive. part grows faster than (+) or slower than (-) a reference part. Geometric growth (multiplicative) and Arithmetic growth (additive).(i.e. a chick)
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What is isometry?
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growth where proportions remain constant (salamanders)
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What is a transformation grid?
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express overall changes in shape. Compares a reference structure to a derived structure. (OCEAN SUNFISH)
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What are some trade-offs in “being the right size”?
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the larger the animal, the fewer the predators.large size advantageous in intra-specific interactions. Smaller animals may require fewer resources to survive. Smaller animals generally have shorter generation times. larger you are the more gravity is a factor in weight bearing design. The smaller the animal the more surface area is a factor. (i.e. heat loss)
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What is biomechanics?
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bioengineering, use of concepts from mechnaical engineering to understand the physical forces an animal experiences. engineers: design a solution based on a problem. Biologists (anatomists) study an end product to understand the physical
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What is biophysics?
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understanding the principals of energy exchange in living organisms (light, heat, diffusion and gases)
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What is ontogeny and how is it different from phylogeny?
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Ontogeny is the origin and the development of an organism – for example: from the fertilized egg to mature form.
Phylogeny is the evolutionary development of an organ or other part of an organism |
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How is embryonic development different from maturation?
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The development and growth of an embryo.
VS The final differentiation processes in biological systems, such as the final ripening of a seed or the attainment of full functional capacity by a cell, a tissue, or an organ. |
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What is metamorphosis?
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The process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages.
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How do we usually define an adult organism?
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an organism that is reproductively mature.
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What is senescence?
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post-reproductive, aging.
senectitude (final stage of a normal life span) |
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Can you list and describe the major steps in the ontogeny of a typical vertebrate?
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fertilization:haploid sperm + haploid egg=diploid nucleus
embryotic development:fertilization->birth/hatch maturation:process of reaching full development or growth. birth to the point of reproductive ability. Still considered Juvinile or immature. metamorphosis: anatomical transition from juvenile to adult. Adult: reproductively mature senescence: pre-reproductive, aging. death. |
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What is a zygote?
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a fertilized eggs
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A morula?
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a solid ball of cells.
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How are a blastula, gastrula, and neurula different?
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blastula: a hollow ball of cells
gastrula: hollow 2 layer cup and the formation of endodermal tube. (gastroceol or archenteron "gut formation" neurula: "nerve formation" process of forming an ectodermal tube (nerve tube) |
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What is cleavage?
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repeated mitotic cell divisions of the zygote. There is little or no change in size of embryo, only change in cell number. (new cells contain portions of original cytoplasm of the egg).
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How does the amount of yolk in an egg affect how cleavage occurs?
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Yolk amount dictates how cleavage occurs.
Slight yolk-->microlecithal eggs moderate yolk-->mesolecithal eggs enormous yolk-->macrolecithal eggs |
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Can you describe micro-, meso-, and macro-lecithal eggs and the cleavage that occurs with each?
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microlecithal eggs->have a slight yolk and a holoblastic cleavage (furrow thru entire animal pole; amphioxus and eurtherian mammals.)
Isolecithal---yolk evenly distributed. Mesolecithal->has a moderate yolk. holoblastic cleavage. (most or all of the cytoplasm is cleaved, in lampreys, gars, amphibians) Macrolecithal-> enormous yolk. Telolecithal (yolk connected at top of vegetal pole). Meroblastic, only a portion of the cytoplasm is cleaved. Elasmobranchs, telecosts. Discoidal cleavage, extensive yolk at vegetal reigon remains undivided; cleavage restricted to animal pole. reptiles, birds, monotremes. |
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What’s the difference between an isolecithal and telolecithal egg?
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isolecithal egg is one that is where the yolk is evenly distributed.
telolecithal egg is one that the yolk is concentrated at the vegetal pole. |
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Can you describe what happens during gastrulation?
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gastrulation follows the blastula stage. It is characterized by major rearrangments of cell layers. It is the "gut formation". Formation of the endodermal tube (gastroceol or archenteron).
Primary germ layers occupy characteristic starting positions. -endoderm -mesoderm -ectoderm mesodermal sheets become tubular, forming the fluid filled body cavity (coelom) |
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What is a gastroceol?
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the endodermal tube formed. (primitive)
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What is neurulation?
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The formation of the embryonic neural plate and its transformation into the neural tube.
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Can you describe the 3 primary germ layers and how they contribute to organogenesis?
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3 layers: Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
ectoderm, the epidermis, mouth and cloacal opening and the nervous system. mesoderm, notochord, skeleton, muscle, circulatory system, gonads, kidneys and urogenital ducts, dermis,extrambryotic membranes endoderm, digestive tract and accesory organs, respiratory structures, urinary bladder. |
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What is histology?
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study of tissues
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Can you describe the 4 categories of adult tissues?
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Epithelium (membranes that cover or line cavities, glands, simple, psedostratified, or stratified. squamous, cuboidal, or columnar. ectoderm or endo derm)
Connective (general is loose, adipose, or fiberous, dense)(specialized is bone and matrix (calcium phosphatem chondroitia, sulfate, plasma)) Muscle (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)(mostly mesoderm) Nervous (nerurons and glial cells)(ectoderm) |
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How is endochondral bone development different from intramenbranous bone development?
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in intermembranous bone development, bone forms directly from the mesenchyme without a cartilage precurosor.
endochonrial bone forms from and within cartilage. |
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What are neural crest cells and ectodermal plates?
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Neural Crest Cells--embryonic structures found only in vertebrates.
Ectodermal Plates--thickenings of surface ectoderm. |
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How do anamniotes differ from amniotes?
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anamniotes lay their eggs in water exclusively. Embryos cannot develop on land. (include amphibians and fishes and lower vertebrates)
amniotes have a terrestially adapted egg. (include synapsids and sauropsids) |
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Can you describe the basic functions of extra-embryonic membranes? When do they form?
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found in anamniotes and amniotes.
intrinsic membranes that arise from embryonic germ layers. They form soon after the basic germ layers. |
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How do extra-embryonic membranes differ in reptiles, birds, and mammals?
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In reptiles and birds the membrane forms soon after the basic germ layers. It is continuous with germ layers of the embryo.
In mammals |
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Can you define oviparity, viviparity, ovoviviparity, parturition, oviposition, gestation, and delayed implantation?
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oviparity: "egg birth"
viviparity: "live birth" embryo is attached to an area on the female reproductive tract. recieves nutrition from the maternal circulation, Allantonic placenta (eutherian mammals), yolk sac placenta (choriovitelline membrane; marsupials, mammals, some fishes and reptiles) ovoviviparity: egg and embryo retained within body in oviduct. Exchange of gasses (CO2 and O2) but nutrients supplied by the yolk. Give "birth to live young.some sharks, lizards, frogs. parturition:the act of giving birth oviposition:The act of laying eggs gestation:time embryo develops within a female. delayed implantation: temp developmental arrest until conditions permit. mate seeking and parturition and mating done in a single time period. Bears, weasles, seals, some deer, and camels. |
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What is heterochrony?
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change in time at which a characteristic appears in the embryo relative to its appearance in a phylogenetic ancestor.
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How are paedomorphosis and peramorphosis different?
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Paedomorphosis is "child form" organisms retain juvinile characteristics in adult form.
Peramorphosis is "beyond form" organisms adult characteristics of ancestors exaggeratd in form in decended adults,. |
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What is the “Biogenic Law” and how does it differ from “Von Baer’s Law”?
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Haeckel came up with biogenic law. means that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny,
Von Baer's Law states that development proceeds from general to specific. |
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Can you provide an explanation supporting one or the other of these laws? (“Biogenic Law or Von Baer’s Law)
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Biogenic Law states that embryos pass thru breif condensed repititons of ancestral stages. there are some hallmark stages that are very similar in different vertebrates.
Von Baer's Law states that there are many forms of vertebrates that do not conform with the biogenic law. instead of passing thru all stages of ancestors, departs from them and becomes specialized. |
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What are Hox genes? How do they function during development?
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Hox genes are master gene sequences, or regulatory genes. THey control secondary genes (structural genes)and are reponsible for the formation of body parts during development.
THey establish body polarity (positional information) |
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How are these genes thought to influence evolutionary change?
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major changes within animal phyla are correlated with duplications, deletions, or changes in the number of Hox genes.
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