Cultural Anthropology-Ch.7-11

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adaptation

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the process organisms undergo to achieve a beneficial adjustment to a particular environment.

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subsistence strategy

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decisions made by people as to the best way to obtain food in a particular environment (e.g., diversified foraging, specialized big game hunting, etc.).

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hunter-gathers

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hunter-gatherers hunt game and collect plant foods (called foraging) rather than grow or tend crops.

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food-foragers/food collectors

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a mode of subsistence involving some combination of hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods.
mobility,small group size, flexible division of labor by gender, food sharing, egalitarianism, communal property, and rarity of warfare.

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food producers

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peoples possessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated plants and/or animals.

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nomadic pastoralists

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pastoral people do not usually establish permanent settlements since they must follow or drive their large herds to new pastures on a regular basis.

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horticulturalists

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cultivate several varieties of food plants together in small, hand cleared gardens,because they do not usually fertilize the soil, they use a given garden plot for only a few years before abandoning it in favor of a new one.

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slash and burn

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an extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops are then planted among the ashes.

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domestication of plants and animals

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Domestication of plants and animals was necessary for the evolution of agriculture, spatial expansion and population increase of humans during the Holocene,which facilitated the evolution of technically innovative
societies.

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extensive agriculture

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most commonly refers to sheep and cattle farming in areas with low agricultural productivity, but can also refer to large-scale

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intensive agriculture

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is an agricultural production system characterized by the high inputs of capital, labor, or heavy usage of technologies such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area

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surplus

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the amount that remains when use or need is satisfied

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institutionalized sharing

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you can depend on another person in your group to supply you with food and you can return that favor when needed

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saami

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the best known Saami livelihood is semi-nomadic reindeer herding

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agta

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physically small and unusually short in stature, dark-skinned, spiral-haired and broad-nosed. They are an extremely ancient people and, I believe, close representatives of the world's earliest modern humans.

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kung or Ju/'hoansi

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nomadic hunter-gatherers that live in the Kalahari Desert in northeastern Namibia. They have little contact with the outside world. Their ability to live adequately in the Kalahari is a survival strategy developed over several hundred years.

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sexual division of labor

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the situation in which males and females in a society perform different tasks. In hunting-gathering societies males usually hunt while females usually gather wild vegetable food.

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age division of labor

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some societies allow their children work when they are able to. Others keep their children from doing manual labor until a certain age.

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cooperation

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the basic unit within which cooperation takes place is the household.

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specialization

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Basically, it's a working society that does many different jobs. Example: A few people do farming, a few people do pottery, and a few people are blacksmiths. The society workes together to make the city wealthier.

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control of land

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land or property that is owned by a certain person or people

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leveling mechanisms

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a cultural obligation prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host public feasts, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates significantly more wealth than anyone else

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cargo system

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become the unpaid responsibility of men who are active in civic life.

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potlatch

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a ceremonial event in which a village chief publicly gives away stockpiled food and other goods that signify wealth

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reciprocity

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the exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties

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general rep.

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a mode of exchange in which the value of what is given is not calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified

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balanced rep.

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a mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving are specific as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery

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negative rep.

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the aim is to get something for as little as possible. Neither fair nor balanced, it may involve hard bargaining, manipulation, and outright cheating

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kula ring

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a form of balanced reciprocity that reinforces trade relations among the seafaring Trobriand people, who inhabit a large ring of islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea, and other Melanesians.

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redistribution

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a form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place, where they are sorted, counted, and reallocated

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conspicuous consumption

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a showy display of wealth for social prestige

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market exchange

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the buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of supply and demand

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trade

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the willing exchange of goods, services, or both

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money

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something used to make payments for other goods and services as well as to measure their value

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market

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It is an arrangement that allows buyers and sellers to exchange things

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informal economy

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a network of producing and circulating marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escape government control

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rational actors

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is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior

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marriage

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a culturally sanctioned union between two or more people that establishes certain rights and obligations between the people, between them and their children, and between them and their in laws.

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affinal kin

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people related through marriage

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conjugal kin

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refer to a household that includes other kin in addition to the members of the nuclear family

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consanguineal kin

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biologically related relatives, commonly referred to as blood relatives

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endogamy

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marriage within a particular group or category of individuals

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exogamy

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marriage outside the group

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alliance proliferating

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Woman marries one or more secondary husbands while remaining married to all previous husbands

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incest taboo

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the prohibition of sexual contact between certain close relatives, usally parent and child and sibling relations at a minimum

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cousin marriage

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a pair of cousins who are involved in a romantic or sexual relationship

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monogamy

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marriage in which both partners have just one spouse

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serial monogamy

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a marriage form in which an individual marries or lives with a series of partners in succession

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polygamy

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one individual having multiple spouses at the same time

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polygyny

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marriage of a man to two or more women at the same time

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polyandry

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marriage of a woman to two or more men at one time; a form of polygamy

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levirate

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a type of marriage in which a widow is required to marry one of her husband's brothers after her husband's death

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sororate

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is the sociological custom of a man marrying (or engaging in sexual activity with) his wife's sister, usually after the wife is dead or has proven infertile.

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arranged marriage

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is a marriage arranged by someone other than the couple getting wedded, curtailing or avoiding the process of courtship

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bride wealth/price

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A payment in the form of money, property, or other valuable asset that is made by or on behalf of a prospective husband to the bride's family in certain cultures or societies

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bride service

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a designated period of time after marriage when the groom works for the bride's family

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dowry

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payment of a woman's inheritance at the time of her marriage, either to her or to her husband

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divorce

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is the termination of a marriage, canceling the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage between two people

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nuclear family

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a group consisting of one or two parents and dependent offspring, which may include a stepparent, step siblings, and adopted children

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extended family

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two or more closely related nuclear families clustered together into a large domestic group

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polygamous families

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A person married to two or more people is polygamous, is said to be committing polygamy

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patterns of residence

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where some form of conjugal or extended family is the norm, family exogamy requires that either the husband or wife, if not borh, must move to a new household upon marriage

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neolocal

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a pattern in which a married couple establish their household in a location apart from either the husband's or the wife's relatives

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patrilocal

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a residence pattern in which a married couple lives in the husband's father's place of residence

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matrilocal

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a residence pattern in which a married couple lives in the wife's mother's place of residence

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ambilocal

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a residence pattern in which a married couple may choose either matrilocal or patrilocal residence

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avunculocal

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a married couple traditionally lives with the man's mother's eldest brother, which most often occurs in matrilineal societies

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duolocal

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(context, of a married couple) living at separate residences

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Lewis Henry Morgan

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He is best known for his work on cultural evolution and Native Americans, which influenced the growth of the emerging new fields of ethnology and anthropology (which became primary at the turn of the 20th century.)

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descent groups

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any kin-ordered social group with a membership in the direct line of descent from a real (historical) or fictional common ancestor

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uni lineal descent

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descent that establishes group membership exclusively through either the male or female line.

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bilateral descent

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is a system of family lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are equally important for emotional ties or for transfer of property or wealth

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patrilineal descent

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descent traced exclusively through the male line to establish group membership

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matrilineal descent

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descent traced exclusively through the female line to establish group membership

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double descent

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a system of descent in which individuals receive some rights and obligations from the father's side of the family and others from the mother's side.

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ambilineal descent

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is a system of determining descent groups in which one belongs to one's father's or mother's lineage. Unlike Unilineal descent, Ambilineality allows the individual the option of choosing their own lineage.

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totem

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often are associated with the clan's mythical origin and reinforce for cla n members an awareness of their common descent

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lineage

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a unilineal kinship group descended from a common ancestor or founder who lived four to sex generations ago, and in which relationships among members can be exactly stated in genealogical terms

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clan

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an extended unilineal kinship group, often consisting of several lineages, whose members claim common descent from a remote ancestor, usually legendary or mythological

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phratry

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a unilineal descent group composed of at least two clans that supposedly share a common ancestry, whether or not they really do

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moiety

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each grup that results from a division of a society into two haves on the basis of descent

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eskimo system

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kinship reckoning in which the nuclear family is emphasized by specifically identifying the mother, father, brother, and sister, while lumping together all other relatives into broad categories such as uncle, aunt, and cousin. Also referred to as lineal system

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age grade

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an organized category of people based on age; every individual passes through a series of such categories over his or her lifetime

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age set

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a formally established group of people born during a certain time span who move through the series of age-grade categories together

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common interest associations

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associations that result from an act of joining based on sharing particular activities, objectives, value,or beliefs

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Native American military associations

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since the 1960s have been experiencing a resugence of ethnic pride after generations of forced assimilation and schooling designed to stampout their cultural identity

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stratified societies

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societies in which people are hierarchically divided and ranked into social strata, or layers, and do not share equally in basic resources that support survival, influence, and prestige

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egalitarian societies

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societies in which everyone has about equal rank, access to, and power over basic resources

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class

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a category of individuals in a stratified society who enjoy equal or nearly equal prestige according to the system of evaluation

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caste

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a closed social class in a stratified society in which membership is determined by birth and fixed for life

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eta

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it evolved from a group advocating traditional cultural ways to a paramilitary group demanding Basque independence.