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92 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Three Methods of Qualitative Research
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Participant Observation
Qualitative Interviewing Social Text Analysis |
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Qualitative Research Paradigms
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Interpretive
Inductive Idiographic Critical |
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4 Criteria for Trustworthiness
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Credibility
Dependability Confirmability Transferability |
how well conclusions ring true to participants
how track-able the research process is, how well can we see how this research got from point A to point B, process connection between the data and the conclusions, quotes and evidence to show connection between source and result how well we can apply this else where, can these conclusions be transferred in a different context, unlike generalizability, not trying to say everyone in the world will experience it in this way but it could happen somewhere else too |
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Participant Observations
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participates in and observed the events under study, researcher is the instrument or research tool, observe and interact with “natives” to gain their perspective
4 Purposes |
Gives comprehensive perspective on phenomenon
Good for studying attitudes/behaviors in natural setting Good for studying communication processes over time Good for ethnography |
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Ethnography of Communication
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focus on the speech community as the primary unit of analysis
3 Characteristics |
Speaking is structured – guided by rules
Speaking is distinctive – in different societies/friend groups there are different codes for speaking (speech communities) Speaking is social – our communication is what constitutes social life, we are constructing realities and our social life through communication |
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Hyme’s SPEAKING Acronym
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Situation
Participants Ends Act Characteristics Key Instrumentalities Norms of Interaction Genres |
setting or scene
who and what is their relationship goal, purpose, outcomes of the communicative action form and content tone or manner (ex. serious, teasing) channel, language, dialect norms for enacting and interpreting category or type of action |
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Critical Ethnography
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analysis of power relations to give voice to the oppressed, ethnography tool of social change
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Case Study
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study of a specific bounded system, group, culture
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Collective Case Study
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a number of cases are studied for the insights into the larger category
Ex. examining several classes for information on classes in general |
Within Case Analysis – detailed description of each case separately
Cross Case Analysis – thematic analysis across cases |
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Single Case Study
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single case is examined in depth
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Ex. studying one classroom for information on that particular class
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Auto-ethnography
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talking about your own experiences, can be powerful but is often criticized because it has a n = 1 so some say it is a reflection on life not a study
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The Warm-Up Period
8 Steps |
Questions of Interest
Literature Review Self Reflection Site Selection Role of Researcher Gaining Access and Consent Sustaining Access Developing a Timeline |
will guide the study, should be elastic so that they can evolve throughout the process
to be open-minded but not empty-headed identify own biases, thoughts, and assumptions, includes reflexive journal purposively choose rather than convenience, choose information-rich sites, reconnaissance mission to check out research has to decide what role he or she will assume detailed proposal to IRB, often sufficient to gain the prior consent of a gatekeeper, build rapport build trust and rapport to gain sponsors and informants Shoot for prolonged engagement |
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How is a reflexive journal different from field notes?
What does each contain? |
Reflexive Journal – factually what was done in the study and thoughts and feelings during the process
Field Notes – observations of the phenomenon |
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Gatekeepers
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can be formal or informal, key to gaining access to site – a formal gatekeeper can often offer consent for you to study the organization
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Sponsors vs. Informants
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Sponsors – group members who take an interest in your project, can help you establish relationships with other community members
Informants – members of the community you can go to for info about the setting or group and for conducting “member checks” |
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Prolonged engagement
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the more time in the field, the greater the study’s credibility
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Gold’s Roles (4)
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Complete-Participant role
Participant-as-Observer role Observer-as-Participant Complete Observer |
participants that are there do not know that they are being observed, acting as the natives act and doing everything they are doing, people only see you as a participant
still fully participating with the group but you make it clear that you are also a researcher may participant but participation is secondary, both of these often include interviews observe the social process without becoming a part of it in any way, unobtrusive, participants don’t know you are observing them |
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Adler’s Degree of Involvement (3)
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Complete Member
Active Member Peripheral Member |
actual member, adopts the goals, values, mission of this place, setting, culture, and society, mind and body
don’t adopt goals and values, join as member to do the study, only body limited participation, eyes but mentally and physically not in the scene |
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The Floor Exercise (3)
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Sampling
Constructing Field Notes Triangulating Sources of Data |
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Symbolic Realism
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the need for researchers to treat the beliefs they study as worthy of respect rather than as objects of ridicule.
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Sampling Tips
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Use purposive sampling
Pick people that meet some need of yours, there is a purpose for choosing the site you are going to choose |
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Maximum-variation sampling
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seek out participants, activities, scenes, cases that will add different and contrasting perspectives
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Ex. sample a manager and an employee to get these two perspectives
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Typical case sampling
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seek out a scene or a participant that you think is typical
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Ex. how children cope with divorce, find one participant that gets at what you are trying to study, or a person that exemplifies the people you are studying
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Snowball sampling
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ask one participant who else we can ask about things
want to start with multiple subjects so that you don’t just get one social network |
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Theoretical construct sampling
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select people/site based on its relevance to your central phenomenon
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Ex. Foxy Kelly only talked to women who had husbands currently deployed
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Critical case sampling
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similar to typical case but instead of the normal type of person, getting at the more dramatic
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Ex. want to know about community uproars
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Convenience sampling
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weakest type of sampling, the least purposive
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Ex. if we are interested in studying training programs and we just sample the next door neighbor they may not even have a training program, whoever will let you in
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Field Notes Tips (5)
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Do not trust your memory
Jottings and then rewrite later Breadth and depth – can’t be sure of what is important until afterwards Who, What, When, Where, Why Chronological Should Include (3) |
detailed descriptions
reflexive records of the process initial analyses/patterns |
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Perspectives
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First-Person – capture researcher’s experience
Third-Person – what others are saying and doing Omniscient – all-knowing perspective on other’s thoughts, motives, and feelings. Not random guesses, emphasizes the researcher’s sense making of what certain actions mean to the natives. |
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Jotting
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shorthand notes, words and phrases that “flag” important points you want to remember later
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Triangulating Sources of Data (4)
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multiple researchers
multiple sources multiple types/methods multiple theoretical perspectives |
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The Cool Down Period
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Saturation
Gradual Withdrawal |
the point where data gets repetitive, need to analyze field notes while you are taking them so that you know additional observations will not reap any new insights, variation is accounted for and understood
keep participants in mind when deciding how to leave a field because additional member checks may be necessary later |
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Strengths of Participant-Observation
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Processes over time
Depth Flexible Inexpensive |
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Weaknesses of Participant-Observation
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Can’t provide statistical descriptions of large population
Field notes and data collection not available to reader so the reader has to trust the researcher |
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Qualitative Interviewing
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A flexible and continuous conversation with a purpose, it is guided not directed, it is an interaction with a plan of inquiry but not without being bound to a specific set of questions
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Purposes of Qualitative Interviewing
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to learn about a phenomena that cannot be directly observed
to access thoughts and feelings, in the interviewee's own words to study informants’ language use tool of triangulation, member checking communicative performance – analyzing the interview itself, how does the interviewee perform in the interview? |
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Phenomenology
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trying to determine what a given experience is like for those who have experienced it, meaning from participant's perspective, researcher resists own subjectivity, describes the meaning of the lived experience
compared to interpretivism |
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Interpretivism
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to weave together native and researcher subjectivities in an attempt to understand the life experience of a native
compared to phenomenology |
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7 Stages of the Interview Process
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Thematizing (planning)
Design Interviewing Transcribing Analyzing Verifying Reporting |
clarify purpose of the interviews and concepts to be explored
lay out the process including ethics conducting the actual interviews create written text of interviews determine meaning of gathered data in relation to purpose of study assess trustworthiness of the data telling others what you learned |
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3 Types of Structure for Interview Protocol
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Structured
Semi-structured Unstructured |
standardized, set questions with set options for responses, usually not used for qualitative
set list of open-ended questions that allow a great deal of freedom by the interviewer, can ask in any order and can change the wording based on conversation flow probes emerge from what the informant says, Some freedom, some similarity between interviews only structured question is demographics, other questions are just topic areas or “talking points,” free to create questions to learn about these topic areas, Most freedom, less similarity between interviews |
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Disadvantaged of Structured Interview Protocol
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Reflects researcher’s point of view rather than informant’s
Limit the depth of insight Little adaptation to the particular informant |
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Reasons for a Semi-Structured over a Unstructured Interview Protocol
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if you have already narrowed down focus, want answers on specific questions
Want to draw comparisons between informants |
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“Tee Up”
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presenting the interviews purpose, a preview of the scope and format, and dealing with ethical issues
reduces uncertainty purpose, process, rights, dangers, consent can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured |
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Descriptive Questions
5 Types |
ask participant to describe the phenomenon in their own words
Tour Questions Mini-Tour Questions Example Questions Experience Questions Natural Language Questions |
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4 Types of Tour Questions
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Typical Grand-Tour
Specific-Grand-Tour Guided-Grand-Tour Task-related Grand-Tour |
Provide a verbal “map” of what is typical
Ex. describe a typical night Ask about the most recent day, event, activity, and so forth Ex. rather than ask about a typical day, which might be hard to generalize, might ask about yesterday take me on a physical tour of some kind informant is asked to perform some task and describe it along the way |
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What is the difference between a Tour question and Mini-tour question?
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Mini-tour questions deal with a much smaller domain of experiences, often follow up questions to grand tour
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Example Questions
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ask informants to provide an example of something
Ex. example of a conflict with husband or wife |
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Experience Questions
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describe an experience that you have had
Ex. tell us about an experience that you felt was a turning point |
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Natural Language Questions
3 Types |
ask people to describe terms they use, ways of talk, language use
Direct-Language Question Hypothetical-Interaction Question Typical-sentence question |
ask what label is for something
imagine a scenario and project into the scenario the talk that he or she thinks would actually happen generate typical sentences in which the word might be used |
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Structural Questions
2 Types |
how different domains of knowledge or perceptions are structured
Verification questions Categorizing questions |
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Verification Questions
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ask the informant to confirm or deny something
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Contrast Questions
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meaning of phenomenon rests on how it is similar and different to other phenomenon
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Rapport
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Relationship between the interviewer and the informant, two levels of communicative meaning between them
Report Level Command Level |
content of the talk
how that talk is to be taken with respect to its relationship implications |
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Tips for Rapport
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Balance focus between report and command level
Dialogue not a Q&A session – should answer questions as well as ask them Remove yourself from dominant interviewer role Open and honest from the start |
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Tips for Effective Interviews
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Let informants talk in their own words and at their own pace
Probe for more details Use transitions between questions to guide, not control Paraphrase Display supportiveness Be flexible and adaptive, but keep focus |
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Floating Prompt
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relational message to the informant to “tell me more”
Nonverbal Example Verbal Example |
Nonverbal Example – raise eyebrows at interesting point
Verbal Example – You described your computer as your “greatest ally at work. What do you mean by this? |
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5 Genres (Types of Interviews)
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Ethnographic Observations
In-depth Interview Group Interview (Focus Group) Narrative Interview Post Modern Interview |
Ethnographic Observations – conversation at the office, the email, the conversation at the coffee machine, more informal, tied to observations, natural, no planned interview protocol
In-depth Interview - to get at the detail of somebody’s experience, what we are doing in our studies, usually 30-90 minutes Group Interview (Focus Group) – multiple homogenous groups, want to have about 7-12 people per group, want each group to be fairly similar but you want diversity in the group, point is to get diverse opinions flowing because they can make people think about the topic differently, building on what each other are thinking, can be very structured or you can have very little structure Narrative Interview – when you are studying people’s experiences through stories/narratives, you elicit stories, you may have a joint interview with two people and ask about when they first met, ask them to tell a story Post Modern Interview – similar to the depth interview, giving voice to the victim, person that is oppressed, challenging society through your interviews, still a depth interview but from a critical perspective |
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Social Text
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a naturally occurring text rather than a researcher-generated one, involves symbols and meanings
Ex. naturally occurring conversation at home, letters, pictures |
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Textualization
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the process of constructing a text from communicative messages (works)
Ex. creating a text from a song or show |
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Examples of Social Texts
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Documents – electronic, visual, written
Ex. memos, pamphlets, brochures, records, letters Enacted Talk – actual conversation, not in a lab but a natural setting Ex. turn an audio recording on at the dinner table each night |
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Why should researchers conduct their own transcriptions?
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It is not a neutral activity, need to take control of it
The researcher becomes familiar with the data and hears things that might have otherwise been missed Level of transcription depends on purpose Ex. word for word, including umms, ect |
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Principles of Category Design
(Social Text Analysis) |
have a notation system for how your data was transcribed, if you did have some sort of notation for pauses, you have the system that you’ve adopted but you also need to say what that means, should calculate this, ex. 4 sec or less is a short pause and 5 secs or more is a long pause
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Principles of Readability
(Social Text Analysis) |
can be visual prominence, how readable is the document but also putting whatever he said that got him angry in bold or italics, have a system to do this going back to the first principle
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Principles of Tractability
(Social Text Analysis) |
how well can you trace your data, you want your data to be easy to use, ex. interviewer name: what they said, line number, ect, being able to tract your data and refer to page number, line number, participant number, easy to use
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Communication Criticism
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the study of public messages (ex. tv, speech)
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Three Processes of Communication Criticism
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Textualization – transcribing process
Analysis – breaking it down into relevant units, dimensions, or themes; identifying semantic relationships Interpretation – Putting back together process that culminates in argument by research about what it means to him/her Judgment - some critical approaches include this |
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Three Traditions of Communication Criticism
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The Rhetorical Tradition - persuasion
The Social Tradition – communication as a process of identification, identifying with others, creating social meaning, shared meaning The Cultural (Critical) Tradition – liberate voices from cultural domination |
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Two Traditions of Discourse Analysis
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Structural Perspective
Functional Perspective |
Structural Perspective - approaches discourse above the sentence level, analyzing the internal parts of the conversation in order to analyze the big picture
ex. parts of a story (initiation, punch line) Functional Perspective - approaches the “use” of language, the functions and purposes of discourse, looking at what is going on outside the person in their dialogue ex. utterances of listeners that help story |
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Conversation Analysis
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a type of discourse analysis that studies naturally occurring interactions, origins in ethnomethodology, bridges structural and functional approach
Ethnomethodology |
the study of how everyday people create a social reality through talk
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5 Issues to Consider during Conversation Analysis
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Select sequence of talk to study
Identify actions in the sequence Identify how the actions are performed Identify how timing and turn-taking constructs roles and understanding Consider how actions construct certain identities, roles, and relationships for the speaker |
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Narrative Approach to Conversation Analysis
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examining naturally occurring instances of story telling, definite beginning, middle, and end chronologically or thematically
Ex. public speeches, stand up comedy, family reunions |
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Performative Approach to Conversation Analysis
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perform texts as a way to understand them and analyze performances
Ex. politician speaks to constituency |
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Semiotic Approach to Conversation Analysis
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search for the meaning intentionally or unintentionally attached to signs
Ex. blue ribbon = first place The meaning of a sign lies in our minds Signs |
any things that are assigned special meaning
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Coding
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the process of categorizing and sorting data
Codes |
shorthand devices to label, separate, compile, and organize data
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7 Basic Steps of Coding
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Determine Questions
Unitize the data Develop coding categories Plugging holes Checking Finding exemplars Integrating Coding Categories |
Determine Questions – start-up and emergent questions help focus the analytic process, reflect the researcher’s general framework and orientation to the data
Unitize the data – Heuristic and smallest piece of information that can stand alone, separating it, smallest collection of words that means something Develop coding categories – repetitious cycle, Housekeeping coding, research process coding, and analytic coding Plugging holes - additional data gathering to differentiate codes or gather more information Checking – Confirmability and credibility check Finding exemplars – Examples that illustrate each coding category (theme); thick description, pulling out quotes that exemplify the theme, establishes confirmability and transferability Integrating Coding Categories – Coding of the coding categories; find connections, creating theories out of the list of themes |
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3 Types of Coding Categories
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Housekeeping coding
Research process coding Analytic coding |
Housekeeping coding: sources of textual units, page numbers, interview “name”, ect
Research process coding: Analysis of reflexive journal; categorization of process, talk about process (we don’t have to do) Analytic coding: developing categories for meanings and meaning make that is evident to the researcher in his or her textual data, also known as constant comparison or analytic induction |
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Checking Stage of Coding (3)
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Negative Case Analysis
Member Checks Triangulation |
Negative Case Analysis - account for discrepancies, look for things that disconfirm your codes, use these to rework themes or develop new ones, even if someone doesn’t match your theme you are still accounting for it
Member Checks - go back to participants that you have already interviewed and ask if themes make sense Triangulation - Use different data/method sources, quotes and evidence from all of the interviews, not just one |
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Why is finding exemplars so important to coding?
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establishes confirmability and transferability
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Magic Number for Categories
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there is no magic number for the amount of categories you should have
want to have maximum sameness of units within categories and maximum difference between categories |
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4 Activities of the Developmental Research Sequence Approach
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Domain Analysis
Taxonomic Analysis Componential Analysis Theme analysis |
Domain Analysis - Developing categories of meaning; elements in category based on a semantic relationship
Taxonomic Analysis - analyzes the relationship among the elements of the domain (relationship between different X’s) Componential Analysis - Focus on differences because meaning is based on contrasts, not just similarities, determine underlying dimensions by which domain members can be contrasted Ex. Conflict talk: Serious and negative; Phatic talk (small talk): Light and positive Theme analysis - Themes identified through dimensions that recur across domains Domain 1: Kinds of talk; Dimension: Personal expression Domain 2: Kinds of clothing; Dimension: Personal expression Because personal expression is a key aspect of both domains, we may conclude it is a cultural theme or value |
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Inclusion
Domain Analysis |
X is a type of Y
ex. football and soccer ball are X’s, ball in general is Y |
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Spatial
Domain Analysis |
X is a place or part of Y
ex. bapst and lower are X’s, BC campus is Y |
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Cause-Effect
Domain Analysis |
X is a cause or a result of Y
ex. studying for this text is x, stress is y |
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Rationale
Domain Analysis |
X is a reason for doing Y
ex. hunger is X, eating lunch is Y |
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Location for action
Domain Analysis |
X is a place of doing Y
ex. lower is X, eating lunch is Y |
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Function
Domain Analysis |
X is used for Y
ex. a ball is X, a game of soccer is Y |
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Means-End
Domain Analysis |
X is a way to do Y
ex. watching TV is X, getting the news is Y |
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Sequence
Domain Analysis |
X is a step or stage of Y
ex. sophomore year is X, college is Y |
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Attribution
Domain Analysis |
X is a characteristic of Y
ex. nice body is X, Kelly’s overall appearance is Y |
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What is Grounded Theory Development?
Why is it unique? |
Analytic process that culminates in the development of a formal theory
unique because it focuses on generalizability and control |
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4 Stages of Grounded Theory Development
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Open-Coding
Axial Coding Process Analysis Selective Coding |
Open Coding - process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data (constant comparison), unitize and categorize
Axial Coding - view in terms of its causes, context, intervening conditions that affect responses to it, action strategies, by with it is managed, and consequences of those strategies Process analysis - Addresses change and flow of events and actions over time, brings time into the situation Selective coding - Pull analysis together, producing a descriptive narrative about the phenomenon of study |
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4 Parts of Axial Coding
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Causes
Contexts Actions and Interactions Consequences |
Causes – events that lead up to, reasons for, and explanations of the phenomenon
Contexts – spatial and temporal locations where the phenomenon is located Intervening Conditions – broad and general conditions bearing upon action/interactional strategies Consequences – be aware of consequences that occur as a result of actions and interactions. Also, dimensions like the magnitude of the consequence (high-low) and the duration of the consequence (short-long) Ex. psychological (guilt), economic (getting fired) |
