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101 Cards in this Set
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- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Cohen's Delinquent Subcultures
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Status Frustration
- lower class boys can't succeed in middle class schools - Get attention by breaking rules - Develop their own rules Cohen's objectivity was criticized because he was middle class |
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Walter Miller's Lower Point of View
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Lower class culture develops unique value system
- Trouble - Toughness - Smartness - Excitement - Fatalism - Autonomy |
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Relative Deprivation
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Samuel Stouffer - studied USN sailors in high and low promotion environments.
- Dissatisfaction was higher in the group with the high promotion rate |
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Judith and Peter Blau
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Relative Deprivation in communities leads to a sense of injustice based on comparison.
- Rich and poor live in close proximity - Causes discontent among the poor - Violence & crime escalate - The rich retreat to gated/remote communities |
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What forms of deviance can relative deprivation explain?
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- White collar crime
- Increasing crime rates in times of affluence |
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What is the focus of social control theories of deviance?
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- All people are tempted to be deviant
- Why do they not all commit deviance - Relies heavily on self-report surveys |
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What are the aspects of Hirschi's Social Bond Theory?
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Social conformity is influenced by the following feelings on community:
- Attachment - Commitment - Involvement - Belief |
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Social Constructionism
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- Situations men define as real are real in their consequences
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What are three questions crime theory tries to answer?
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1. Why are some more likely to commit crime than others
2. Why are some kinds of people more likely than others to commit crime 3. Why is crime more common in some locations |
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What are some ancient theories of deviance?
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1. God was testing their faith
2. God was punishing them 3. God was using others to serve as an example 4. Deviants were possessed by demons |
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Cesare Beccaria
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- Wrote "On rimes and Punishments"
- Helped found classical criminology - Believed people act rationally and out of free will - Regarded as the father of modern criminology |
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Jeremy Bentham
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- People are rational
- The law is more severe than it needs to be to deter criminality - Helped shape the development of the first modern police in London - In his time, jails were merely a holding place while awaiting trial and execution |
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Auguste Compte
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- Founded the positive school of philosophy
- Argued human behaviour is determined by factors beyond individual control - Influenced by Darwin's work |
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What are some critiques of positivist theory
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1. Blindly accepts the state's definition of crime
2. Wrong to deny free will altogether 3. Assumes criminals are fundamentally different from non-criminals |
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Rational Choice Theory
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Assumes individuals choose to commit crime after weighing the rewards and risks.
Closely aligned with Deterrence Theory |
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Types of Deterrence
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General Deterrence: the possibility of punishment
Specific Deterrence: experiencing punishment deters repeat offending Objective Deterrence: refers to the impact of the actual punishment Subjective Deterrence: refers to the impact of people's perceptions of punishment |
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Critiques of Deterrence Theory
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- Higher arrest rates don't always lead to lower crime rates
- Some evidence shows punishment increases the chance offenders will break the law - Criminals don't weigh the risks and rewards of their crimes - Most crimes are not committed with punishment in mind |
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Emile Durkheim
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- Deviance is a normal phenomenon in all healthy societies
- Human nature is inherently selfish - Society controls behaviour through socialization and social ties - A strong set of norms leads to a collective conscience |
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Anomie
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A condition of normlessness. Social controls fail to regulate individual behaviour.
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What did Durkheim conclude about suicide?
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- Protestants have higher rates than catholics
- Unmarried people have higher rates - Anomie and low social integration lead to higher suicide rates |
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Social Disorganization
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Clifford R. Shaw
Henry D. McKay |
High neighbourhood crime rates due to weakened norms, social bonds, and conventional social institutions
Evidence of social disorganization includes dilapidation, high rates of poverty and divorce |
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Deviant Places
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Rodney Stark
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High neighbourhood crime rates due to high pop density, poverty, transience, dilapidation, and proximity of residential and commercial property
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Anomie theory of crime
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Robert K. Merton
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Crime results from the failure to achieve the cultural goal of economic success through the institutional means of working
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General Strain
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Robert Agnew
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Negative emotions and thus delinquency result from the failure to achieve desired goals, from the removal of positive stimuli, and the introduction of negative stimuli
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Status Frustration
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Albert K. Cohen
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Delinquency results from the failure of lower class boys to do well in school because of middle class values
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Focal Concerns
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Walter B. Miller
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Delinquency results from several lower-class subcultural focal concerns: trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, autonomy and fatalism
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Differential Opportunity
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Richard Cloward
Lloyd Ohlin |
Whether individuals respond to their lack of access to legitimate means with criminal behaviour depends on their access to illegitimate means.
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Subculture of Violence
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Marvin Wolfgang
Franco Ferracuti |
High rates of urban violence result from a subculture of violence that favours violent responses to insults and other interpersonal conflicts
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Code of the Street
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Elijah Anderson
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A variation of the subculture of violence approach that emphasizes the use and threat of violence to maintain respect; the need for respect results from the despair and alienation in which the urban poor live
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Critiques of Social Disorganization Theory
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- Relies heavily on official records
- Middle/upper class delinquency escapes detection - Lower class delinquency is therefore relatively overstated - Underestimated the ability of some inner city ethnic groups to maintain a low crime rate |
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More recently, what does social disorganization say about crime?
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Crime and victimization are highest when
1. low participation in voluntary organizations 2. few networks of friendship ties 3. low levels of collective efficacy 4. high degrees of residential mobility - The theory was revitalized by new empirical data |
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Ecological theory of crime
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Because of the simultaneous effects of extreme poverty, urban living and discrimination, members of the underclass commit violence and crime out of frustration, anger, and economic need
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According to Merton, how do people adapt to anomie or strain?
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1. Conformity: accept goals, accept means
2. Innovation: accept goals, reject means 3. Ritualism: reject goals, accept means 4. Retreatism: reject goals, reject means 5. Rebellion: invent goals, invent means |
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Attachment
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The degree to which we care about the opinions of others.
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Containment
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Walter Reckless
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Inner containments (positive self-concept and tolerance for frustration) and outer containments (family influences) help prevent juvenile offending.
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Control Balance
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Charles R. Tittle
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People are more likely to engage in deviance when they are either very controlling or very controlled than when they have a balance of control
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Neutralization and Drift
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Gresham Sykes
David Matza |
Before committing delinquency, adolescents develop techniques of neutralization, or rationalizations, to minimize any guilt felt for breaking the law. Specific techniques include denial of responsibility, denial if injury, denial of the victim, condemnation of the condemners, and appeal to higher loyalties
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Differential Association
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Edwin Sutherland
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Techniques and attitudes regarding criminal behaviour are learned within intimate personal groups; a person becomes delinquent from an excess of definitions favourable to the violation of law over definitions unfavourable to the violation of law
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Learning Theories
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Theories designed to tell us how people come to adopt particular views and how and why they result in crime
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Differential Identification
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Daniel Glaser
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People pursue criminal behaviour to the extent they identify with members of reference groups who engage in criminal behaviour.
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Social Learning Theory
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Albert Bandura
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Aggressive tendencies are learned through a process of rewards for such tendencies and imitation of aggressive behaviour
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Differential Reinforcement
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Robert Burgess
Ronald Akers |
Criminal behaviour and attitudes are more likely to be learned if they are rewarded by friends and/or family; when the rewards from criminal behaviour outweigh the rewards for conforming behaviour, differential reinforcement occurs and the criminal behaviour is learned.
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Social Bonding
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Travis Hirschi
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Delinquency and crime are more common among individuals with weakened social bonds to conventional social institutions such as the family and school.
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Coercive Control and Social Support
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Mark Colvin
Francis T. Cullen |
Coercion at either the micro or macro level promotes criminal behaviour, while social support at either level reduces it.
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Integrated Strain Control
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Delbert Elliot
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Weak social bonds, strain, and delinquent peers contribute to delinquency; adolescents with weak bonds and strain are particularly vulnerable to delinquent peers' influence. Strain may weaken even strong bonds and thus increase delinquent peer associations and delinquency.
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Interactional Theory of Delinquency
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Terence Thornberry
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Weak social bonds and delinquent peers contribute to delinquency; delinquency and delinquent peer associations may also weaken social bonds and further increase delinquency
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Life-Course-Persistent / Adolescence - Limited
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Terrie Moffitt
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Antisocial behaviour is serious, persists through the life course, and begins during childhood because of neuropsychological and other problems.
A much greater number of individuals' antisocial behaviour occurs during adolescence, is minor, and is a way of expressing growing maturity and independence |
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Age Graded Theory
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Robert Sampson
John Laub |
Weak Social Bonds, inadequate parenting, and delinquent peers contribute to criminality, but turning points in the life course, such as marriage and employment, often lead to the desistance of crime.
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Labeling Theory
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Edwin Lemert
Howard Becker |
Deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits; some people and behaviours are more likely than others to be labeled deviant; the deviant label may lead to continued deviance.
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Conflict Theory of Deviance
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Thorsten Sellin
George Vold Austin Turk |
Law and crime result from conflict among the various groups in society, not just economic classes.
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Radical Theory of Deviance
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Willen Bonger
Jerome Hall William Chabliss Richard Quinney |
The wealthy use the legal system to protect their dominance and to suppress the poor; the criminal law and justice system reflects the interests of the powerful.
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Feminist Theories of Deviance
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Kathleen Daly
Meda Chesney Sally Simpson |
Crime cannot be fully understood and explained without appreciating the important role that gender plays; feminist theories can and should be used to reduce gender inequality in the areas of crime and criminal justice, as well as in the larger society.
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What issues do labelling theory attempt to address?
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1. The definition of deviance and crime
2. Possible discrimination in the application of official labelling and sanctions 3. The effect of labelling on continued criminality |
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What two groups did William Chambliss study to much acclaim?
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The Saints and the Roughnecks.
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Primary Deviance
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The initial deviant act that occurs before a label is applied.
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Secondary Deviance
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Deviance that occurs after a person has been labelled deviant and accepts that label.
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Culture Conflict
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Cultural behaviours condoned by one culture in a society but condemned by another.
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Criticisms of conflict theory
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It fails to explain the existence of rules that benefit the poor as much as or more than the rich. (laws against street crime)
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Instrumental Marxism
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Considers the ruling class a small, unified group that uses the law to dominate the poor and to advance its own interests.
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Structural Marxism
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The ruling class is less unified than instrumental marxists think. The state makes concessions to keep the poor happy enough not to rebel.
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What are 5 common beliefs of radical criminologists?
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1. The wealth in capitalist societies is controlled by relatively few
2. The wealthy use their power and laws to maintain their position in society 3. Criminal law reflects the interests of the powerful 4. Criminals normally commit crime because they are poor 5. A harsh criminal justice system will not reduce crime because it doesn't address the structural roots |
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What are some common Feminist perspectives on crime?
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Radical - focus on patriarchy
Socialist - focus on capitalism and patriarchy equally Multicultural - study effects of race, ethnicity, class and gender simultaneously |
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What four areas to Feminist criminologists seek to examine?
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1. Victimization of women
2. Gender differences in crime 3. Explanations of woman's criminality 4. Women's experiences and gender discrimination in the justice system |
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How do boys and girls differ in their response to victimization?
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Boys are less likely to be sexually abused but tend to turn to violence. Girls are more likely to be sexually abused and tend to turn to self-victimizing behaviour (prostitution etc)
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How do feminists think crime can be reduced?
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Change the socialization of boys as well as traditional notions of masculinity
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What does the evidence say about the system's treatment of female offenders.
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While the evidence is mixed, legally relevant variables such as prior record and seriousness of offence are far more influential than gender.
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What factors inhibit the chances of girls becoming delinquent?
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Patriarchal upbringing leads women to be less independent and more subservient.
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What four categories is murder comprised of?
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1. First-Degree Murder
2. Second-Degree Murder 3. Third-Degree Murder 4. Involuntary Manslaughter |
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Aggravated Assault
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An unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily harm.
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Simple Assault
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Assaults where no weapon is used and do not result in serious or aggravated bodily injury.
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What factors have led to the decline in homicides of men by female partners?
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1. Women's shelters
2. Women's growing economic independence 3. Falling marriage rates of young adults (highest risk group for domestic violence) These factors help women avoid systematic abuse from violent husbands. |
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Why do women kill men
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Most women kill husbands or boyfriends who have been battering them
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Are blacks more likely to commit homicide?
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Yes, they commit half of all homicides in the US but only comprise 13% of the population. They mostly kill other blacks (92% of blacks killed are killed by blacks)
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What are two explanations for the South's high homicide rate?
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1. Culture of violence
2. Economic deprivation |
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What are the weapons of choice for homicides?
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1. Firearms (68%)
2. Knives (12%) 3. Hands, fists (6%) 4. Blunt objects (4%) 5. Other (10%) |
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Why did homicide rates rise in the late 1980s?
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1. Declining economic opportunities
2. Increased drug trafficking 3. Increased possession of guns * Almost all of the increase was due to blacks * |
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Why did homicide rates fall sharply in the mid 1990s?
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Social factors: aging population
Economic factors: improving economy Crimina justice factors: getting tough on crime (debatable) |
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What are some key characteristics of aggravated assault?
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1. Like homicide, declined in the mid 1990s. More common among men, blacks, youth, and the South
2. Spontaneous and emotional 3. Strangers commit 74% of aggravated assaults against men; 48% against women 4. 2/3 of homicides involve firearms; only 1/4 aggravated assaults involve firearms. |
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What are some explanations for the high rate of violence in the US?
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1. Economic inequality
2. Handgun ownership 3. Violent history |
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Why do men commit most serious violent crime?
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Violent nature of masculinity due to gender differences arising during childhood.
- confrontational violence against other men - control violence agains women - interaction of poverty with masculinity |
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What are 5 non-racist explanations for the high crime rates among blacks?
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1. Anger and frustration arising from racial discrimination and economic deprivation
2. Stress and social disorganization arising from urban life 3. Lack of economic resources during adolescence 4. Negative family and school experiences 5. The violent nature of masculinity |
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How does the code of the street lead to violence?
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Extreme poverty and related conditions leads to the emphasis on respect above all else. The poor resort to violence to earn this respect.
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What social process factors can lead to violence?
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1. Learning factors: socialization and differential association
2. Parental neglect and abuse |
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What is the social profile of a robber?
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1. Young
2. Male (89%) 3. Black (56%) 4. Committed by a stranger (69%) 5. Injured their victim (30%) 6. Used a weapon (48%) |
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What are four types of robbers?
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1. Professional Robbers
2. Opportunist Robbers 3. Addict Robber 4. Alcoholic Robber |
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What are typical motivations for robbery?
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1. Innovation due to Anomie
2. Routine activities 3. Pursuit of status among deviant peers |
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What are the best estimates of serial killings in the US?
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50 to 400 annually
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Profile of a mass murderer
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1. Almost always male
2. Feel aggrieved 3. Use firearms 4. Plan their crime |
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Profile of a serial killer
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1. White male in 20's to 30's
2. Kill strangers 3. Kill easy targets 4. Appear normal 5. Know right from wrong 6. Antisocial 7. Childhood problems |
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What types of serial killers are there?
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1. Hedonistic Lust Killers - sexual pleasure
2. Thrill Killers - sexual pleasure + torture 3. Comfort Killer - financial gain 4. Power-Control Killers - dominating 5. Visionary Killers - hear voices, schizophrenic |
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What are common motivations for hate crimes?
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1. Racial Bias (54%)
2. Ethnicity (16.5%) 3. Sexual Orientation (18%) 4. Religion (9.6%) |
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Of all crimes, which two victimize women more than men?
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1. Rape & Sexual Assaut
2. Domestic violence (1/3 of all women killed are killed by male intimates) |
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How are rapes broken down in the US, by percentage?
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1. Friend or acquaintance (38%)
2. Intimate (28%) 3. Stranger (26%) 4. Relative (7%) 5. Unknown (2%) |
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According to various stats, what is the chance a women will be raped in her lifetime?
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18% - 25%
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What is the social profile of a battered woman?
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1. 20-24
2. Lower class 3. Native american (by probability) 3a. White by sheer numbers |
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Backlash hypothesis
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Violence against women is higher when men feel threatened by women's growing equality.
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Why do some women stay in abusive relationships?
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1. Most don't
2. Nowhere to go 3. Financial dependence 4. Fear of retaliation 5. Continue to lover their batterers 6. A sense of learned helplessness |
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Profile of a stalking
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- 8% of women and 2% of men have been stalked
- 80% of victims knew their offender - 30% to 40% of victims were eventually attacked |
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In some cities, what has been the most effective way to prevent recidivism in domestic violence?
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Mandatory arrest of the offender
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What are criticisms of mandatory arrest policies for domestic violence?
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1. Lead to more women being arrested even though their violence is less serious.
2. May put some women in more danger 3. Deprives victims of any role in the arrest decision |
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Why is child sexual abuse sometimes underreported?
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1. Abuse is repressed or forgotten.
2. Infants and toddlers may be too young to remember the abuse |
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