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34 Cards in this Set
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Ron Clarke Situational Crime prevention? |
A pre-emptive approach that relieve on not improving society or institutions but simply reducing the opportunities for crime. Identified 3 features of measures: 1. Direct at a specific crime. 2. Involves managing or altering the immediate environment of the rime. 3. Aim at increasing the efforts and risks of committing crime and reduce the rewards. EG. More surveillance or security guards |
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Why does Ron Clarke provide such an approach? |
Underlying situational crime prevention is an opportunity or rational choice theory which assumes criminals act rationally, weighing up the costs and benefits. Contrasts with theories that stress the importance of root causes of crimes as they offer no real solution to crime. |
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Felson's example of situational crime prevention? |
The port authority bus authority in New York City was poorly designed and provided opportunities for deviant conduct; toilets were a setting for luggage thefts, rough sleeping, drug dealing and so by reshaping the environment to design crime out reduced such activity. Large inks in which homelessness people were bathing was replaced with small hand basins. |
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Chaiken et al criticism of situational prevention? |
Argues that by creating such methods, just displaces the crime to different areas, time, method, victims or types of crimes. Crackdown of New York subway displaced the crime to the streets. |
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Evaluation of Situational Crime Prevention |
Works to some extent in reducing certain types of crimes however, most would likely be displaced. Tends to focus on opportunistic petty street crimes and ignores white collar, corporate and state crime which can be more costly & harmful. Assumes criminals make rational calculations which seems unlikely for violent crimes or crimes under the influence of alcohol. Ignores the root causes of crime which makes it difficult to develop long term strategies. |
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What is James Q Wilson and Kelling's strategy at reducing crime. |
They argue that broken windows, graffiti, noise can send out a signal that nobody cares. Also in such neighbourhoods, there is an absence of both formal and informal control and so such behaviour is ignored, thus continued while others feel intimidated and powerless. Zero tolerence policy is the solution to crack down on any disorder using a two fold strategy. Environmental improvement strategy where broken windows must be repaired immediately otherwise more will follow. The police must adopt a zero tolerance policy where instead of reacting to crime, they must pro actively tackle it - even the slightest sign of disorder which would halt neighbourhood decline and prevent serious crimes taking root. |
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Evidence for Zero Tolerance Policy |
Clean car program was instituted on the subway where cars were taken out of service immediately if they had any graffiti on them and returned once cleaned. Graffiti became largely removed from subway. Other successful programs include tackling fare dodging, drug dealing and begging. Between 1993 and 1996 there was a significant fall in crime including 50% drop in homicide rate. |
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Evaluation of New York zero tolerance policy |
It was unclear how far the reduce crime owed to zero tolerence since: the NYPD benefited with 7,000 extra police officers. There was a general decline in crime rate in major US cities, including cities where the police did not adopt the approach. The early 1990s experienced a major recession but by 1994, many jobs were created. While homicides fell, attempting homicides remained high suggesting the fall was due to improved medical care? Influential with New Labour in UK especially |
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Social and Community crime prevention approach? |
place an emphasis on the potential offenders and their social context which aims to remove the conditions that predispose individuals to crime in the first place - Longer term strategies tackling the root of problems. For example, policies to promote full employment would reduce crimes as a side effect. |
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What was the Perry Pre School project |
Aimed to reduce criminality in disadvantaged black children in Michigan. An experiment group of 3-4 years olds were offered two year intellectual enrichment programs and the children received weakly home visits.
Longitudinal study found there was a striking difference with the control and experimental group. By age 40, they had significantly fewer lifetime arrests for violent, property and drug crimes while more graduated from high school and employed. Found for every dollar spent on the programme, 17 was saved through welfare, prison and other costs. |
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Evaluation of crime prevention |
That all focus on fairly low level and or interpersonal crimes of violence - disregard the powerful and enviormental crimes.
The definitions of crime problems reflect the priorities of politicians and agencies tasked with crime prevention. Whyte conducted a study of 26 crime and disorder area partnerships with North West England and discovered what crimes there strategies were targeting. At the same time, the environmental agency instituted 98 prosecutions of which some were severely effecting the environment and the people but there was no logical reasons why such activities were not targeted by police. |
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Preventing future crimes through: |
Deterrence; punishing the individuals discourages them from offending again. Making an example out of them also serves as a deterrent to the public eyes. EG. Thatchers short sharp shock regime in young offenders in institutions. Rehabilitation is the idea that punishment can used to reform or change offenders so they no longer offend; education and training for prisoners. Incapacitation is the use of punishment to remove the offenders capacity to offend again. imprisonment, cutting off hands, execution. Incapacitation has become popular with Americans; three strike rule where even committing a minor third offence could lead to a lengthy prison time. Remove offenders from society. Instrumental - punishment is a means to an end - crime reduction |
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Retribution as punishing people |
Paying back where it is the idea of rather than preventing future crimes, it is based on offenders being deserved to be punished and society entitled to take revenge. Expressive |
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What does Durkheim argue that the function of punishment is?
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To uphold social solidarity and reinforce shared values where punishment is primarily expressive. |
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Two types of justice according to Durkheim |
Retributive Justice: In traditional society there is little specialisation but social solidarity and collective conscience is important. Punishment is severe and cruel and its motivations are purely expressive as an expression of vengeful passion to repress the wrong doer. Restitutive justice: Modern society, there is extensive specialisation where solidarity is based on interdependence between individuals. crime damages this interdependence and so its repaired through compensation - to restore things to how they once were (instrumental) but punishment still holds an expressive element. |
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Study to criticise Durkheim |
Traditional societies often have restitutive functions rather than retributive justice as durkhiem argues. For example, blood fueds are often settled by an agreed payment of compensation rather than execution. |
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Marxim function of punishment |
Is to mainain the existing social order- repressive state apparatus. Means of defending the ruling class property against the lower class. |
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What did Thompson Argue? |
Describes how in the 18th century punishments such as hanging for theft were part of a rule of terror by the rich over the poor. |
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Foucault: birth of prison |
The difference between sovereign power and disciplinary power. Foucault illustrates how disciplinary power with panopticon. The prisoners don't know if they are being watched but know they may be and so they behave at all times as though they are. The surveillance becomes self surveillance and the discipline become self discipline. Control takes place inside the prisoner. After 19th century, subjecting individuals to disciplinary power to induce conformity became popular. Schools, mental health institutions. |
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Evaluation of Foucalt |
Neglects the expressive aspects of punishment. He exaggerates the extent of control. Goffman shows how inmates are able to resist controls in institutions. |
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Negatives of imprisonment |
Not proved as an effective rehabilitation tool s about 2/3 of prisoners commit further crimes on release. Many critics argue its an expensive way of making bad people worse |
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What is a populist punitiveness |
politicians have sought electoral popularity bt enforcing harsher sentences. The New Labour Government after 1997 took the that prisons should be used not only for serious offenders but also persistent petty offenders. As a result prison population had grown by 70% between 1993 and 2005 - poor sanitation, barely edible food, clothing shortages, etc. |
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What does David Downes argue on US mass incarceration? |
The US prison system soaks up at 30 - 40% of the unemployed, thereby making capitalism look good. |
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What does Garland argue regarding the mass incarceration? |
Is the growing politicisation of crime control as for the last century, there was a consensus of reintegration of offenders but since 1970 there has been a more towards more tough on crime policies. |
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Who are victims and how are they defined? |
The United nations define victims as someone who has been harmed but Nils Christie argues that the notion, victim is socially constructed. |
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Positivist Victimology |
Aims to identify factors that produce patterns of victimisation, focuses on interpersonal crimes and aims to identify victims who have contributed to their own victimisation. |
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What does Von Hentig argue? |
Identified 13 characteristics of victims such as being female, elderly which acts as an implication where the victim has a sense of 'inviting' victimisation by being the kind of person they are. Include lifestyle factors such as displaying wealth. |
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What did wolfgang find? |
That 26% of homicides, involved the victim triggering the events leading to the homicide. |
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Evaluation of Positivist victimology |
Ignores wider factors such as poverty It can easily tip into being victim blaming. It ignores situations where victims are unaware of their victimisation. |
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Critical criminology focuses on what two elements? |
Structural factors such as patriarchy and poverty which places powerless groups at greater risk of victimisation eg. women The states power to apply or dent the label of victim e.g. when the police decide to not press charges against a man for assaulting his wife, thereby denyng her victim status. |
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Tombs and Whyte argue? |
To show safety crimes where employers violation of the law lead to death or injury to workers are often explained as accident prone workers - The powerless are most likely to be victimised but least likely to be acknowledged by the state. |
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Evaluation of Critical criminology |
Disregards the rile victims play in bringing victimisation on themselves through their own choices. e.g. not making their home secure. It is valuable in drawing attention to the way that victim status is constructed by power. |
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Patterns of victimisation |
Class: The poorest groups are most likely to be victimised eg. crime rates highest in areas of low unemployment. Age: Younger people are more at risk of victimisation - Teenagers are more vulnerable than adults to offences. Ethnicity: Minority ethnic groups are at greater risks of being victims of crime and racially motivated crmes Gender: Males at greater risk of violent crimes although females more likely to experience domestic violence. |
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Impacts of victimisation |
Serious effects and create indirect victims. Secondary Victimisation - The idea that as well as the impact itself, individuals may experience further victimisation at the hands of the CJS Fear of Victimisation - crime may create fear of becoming a victim which sociologists argue is often irrational. EG. women fear crime but in fact young males experience more crime. |
