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64 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Geographical Setting |
Bay of Napels
Western Coast of Italian Peninsula 2km inland E - Apennine Mountains, N - Mt. Vesuvius & S - Sarno River Campania - 200km south of Rome |
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Natural Features & Resources
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Highest yields inf Italian Peninsula region
Vineyards thrived in the area Crops - wheat and barley; Veggies - cabbage and chickpeas; Fruit - olives and figs; Animals - sheeps and goats |
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Plans & Streetscapes:
Pompeii |
Layout reflects Greek influence - regular geometric grid
Approx. population of 20,000 Three main streets - Via dell' Abbondanza, Via di Nola and Via Stabiana Four main gates Wheeled traffic evidence Raised footpaths and stepping stones Fountains located street intersections Covers 66ha - 45ha excavated Thriving port and commercial centre |
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Plans & Streetscapes:
Herculaneum |
Layout reflects Greek influence
Approx. population of 5,000 Two main streets - Decumanus Maximus and Decumanus Inferior Fewer minor streets than Pompeii Less evidence of wheeled traffic No stepping stones - extensive underground sewer Smaller resort and residential town |
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Range of Available Sources
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Written
Legal Documents Official Inscriptions Advertisments Graffiti Wall Paintings Moasics Human & Animal Remains Organic Artefacts |
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The Eruption
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First Stage (Plinian Phase): cloud of toxic gas 20-30km, fell over 17 hours, 2.7m deep, fell on Pompeii, wind carried away from Herculaneum, minimal fatalities at this point
Second Stage (Nuee Ardente): 6 pyroclastic surges and flows, 100-300km/h flow, 400*C, 1st killed those in Herculaneum, 2nd disipated before Pompeii, 3rd&4th covered Pompii and killing, 5th&6th completely buried towns |
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The Economy:
Trade |
Majority of evidence of imports and exports come from pottery
Pompeii ideally poisitioned for trade Import/export not extensive Most well-known exports were garum, wine and oil Worshop production small scaled |
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The Economy:
Commerce |
Pompeii was a market town
Shops and wax tablets suggest a healthy commercial life Little evidence of manufacturing at Herculaneum Commerce conducted in public buildings in and around forum 130 hot food and drink shops and 20 taverns at Pompeii Stone table of official weights and measures built into Temple of Apollo 154 tablets recording business transactions found |
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The Economy:
Industries - Olive Oil & Wine |
Important local industries for local comsumption and export
Rich and respected families made their money from production of wine and oil Villa Rustica at Boscreale found with 10,000 litre wine store vats 2000 staked vineyard found outside walls of Pompeii |
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The Economy:
Industries - Fishing & Garum |
Evidence includes remains of fish market in macellum and fresco painting and mosaics of fish
Production of garum was another industry - many labelled garum containers have been found |
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The Economy:
Industries - Woollen Textiles |
Generally done in the household
Fulleries were where newly woven cloth was washed and bleached and sometimes dried Dyeworks found with dying vats Corportion of Weavers, Dyers and Fullers in Pompeii Forum Felt-making was another form of textile manufacture |
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The Economy:
Industries - Pottery |
Important commodity and most pottery made locally
Several Workshops have been discovered at Pompeii |
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The Economy:
Industries - Metalwork |
Iron, copper, bronze, silver and gold most commonly used
Metal objects - fish hooks, nails, hinges, saws, hammers, braizers, pots, pans, dishes, lanterns, surgical instruments, jewellery, statuettes More than a dozen metalwork shops in Pompeii |
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The Economy:
Industries - Bread Making |
30 bakeries at Pompeii equipped with mills for grinding turned by mules
More than 10 types of bread made 81 carbonised loaves found in ovens of the Bakery Modestus at Pompeii Millstones made from local volcanic stone were produced for export |
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The Economy:
Industries - Agriculture Production |
Land around Pompeii featured different types of farms
Farms raised sheep, goats and cattle and produced a range of grains, fruit and vegetable crops Spelt (durum wheat), fruit and vegetables for local market |
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The Economy:
Occupations |
Agriculture - farmer, geographer
Animals & Fishing - herdsmen, pig breeder, net maker Arts & Crafts - gem cutter, fresco painter Commerce - money lender, landlord, banker Food & Drink - baker, inn keeper Transport - mule driver, waggoner, porter Service - bath attendent, barber, prostitute Medical - doctor, dentist, midwife Entertainment - gladiator, actors |
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Social Structure:
Men |
Senatorial elite - holiday houses and visited from Rome or were wealthy landowners or traders and invloved in politics
Ordinary citizens - made up majoirty of artisans, craftmen, traders, businessmen and farmers Full legal rights, could vote, could hold political office, could be members of town council, controlled public finances, privileged seats in amphitheatre |
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Social Structure:
Women |
Could not hold formal political office
Could not vote Were under legal control of their fathers or husbands Could own property Could conduct business Supported electrol candidates Recieved honourary statues and tombs |
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Social Structure:
Freedmen |
Former slaves - had been manumitted
Many of them became properous and influential Traders and artisans Men - vote in elections, own business, participate in some cults, become an Augustalis Women - not hold formal political office, some worked for former master |
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Social Structure:
Slaves |
Approx. 40% of Pompeii population
Little evidence of their lives Few houses had separate slave quarters Domestic work common Few tombstines attributed to slaves Many were illiterate and engaged in responsible roles for masters |
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Local Political Life
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Both towns administrated by locally elected officials according to Roman law
Local government was structured into three levels and copiously documented Electoral graffiti usually painted red on shop fronts and walls facing busy streets - 2000 pieces found |
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Local Political Life:
Magistracy |
Decuriones
Two co-mayors (duumviri) - served for one year, oversaw justice, organised census every 5 years, devided on public works Two aediles - served for one year, took care of streets, public buildings, temples, markets, maintained public order |
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Local Political Life:
Council |
Ordo decurionum
Comprised 80-100 decuriones - 'leaders of the community' Wealthy, freeborn citizens, aged over 25 years Settled community debts Dealt with city finances, religious matter, public business Life Membership |
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Local Political Life:
People's Assembly |
Comitium
All eligible male citizens aged over 25 Voted on all proposals by the Council Elected the duuviri and aediles annually (each spring) |
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Local Political Life:
Patron-Client Relationship |
Elite freeborns acted as patrons to those in the lower class
Responsibilty of client to support his patron at elections and do any favors that might be required Patron might assist his client in legal matters or give him a small gift or free meal |
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Everyday Life:
Leisure Activites - Spectacles & Blood Sports |
Largest building in Pompeii was dedicated to public leisure in the form of gladiator combats
Ampitheatre seated 13,000 to 20,000 people - staged spectacles and blood sports on public holidays Paintings, moasics and inscriptions provide evidence of events |
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Everyday Life:
Leisure Activites - Theatre |
Evidence of the populatiry of dramatic perfomances
Comedies, tragedies and farces were performed Seated 2,500 to 5,000 people |
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Everyday Life:
Leisure Activites - Music |
Musical instruments appear in paintings and mosaics showing scenes of public spectacles
Instruments have been found in houses |
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Everyday Life:
Leisure Activites - Athletics |
Palastra - large public centre where men exercised and where athletic competitions were held
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Everyday Life:
Leisure Activites - Drinking |
Taverns and bars uncovered in Pompeii provide evidence that drinking was popular
Wine taverns were found in most main streets |
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Everyday Life:
Leisure Activites - Gambling |
Evidence from mosaics, paintings and graffiti suggest gambling was popular
Conducted in bars and public baths Gambled over gladiator combats and cockfights Knucklebones popular game with women |
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Everyday Life:
Food & Dining |
Carbonised remains of food most reliable evidence
Food generally prepared on portable braziers over charcoal Larger houses has separate kitchen areas Meat - pork, beef, lamb, venison, goat, rabbit; Seafood - fish, oysters, clams, octopus, squid prawns; Poultry -pigeon, duck, goose, crane, chicken; Produce - figs, berries, apples, grapes, plums, turnips Prepared in thermopolia (take-away) |
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Everyday Life:
Clothing |
Little survives
Males - tunic, personalised signet ring (high-status) Females - tunic, stola (married), jewellery, makeup Slaves - hats Width of purple stipes indicated rank Both sexes wore sandals or laced shoes and cloaks in wet weather |
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Everyday Life:
Health |
Skeletal remains - nourished, 11% of females show menopause, dental conditions (cavities, worn teeth, gum disease), lead poisoning
Women 155cm and men 168cm Collection of surgical instruments uncovered in different locations in Pompeii - tweezers, forceps, probes, clamps, pliers |
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Everyday Life:
Baths |
Could bathe, exercise, get massaged, socialise, play dice
Most houses did not have bathrooms Men and women bathed separately Routine - undress, enter caldarium (hot), massage, enter tepidarium (warm), plunge in frigidarium (cold) Heated by hypocaust beneath floor Pompeii - Stabian, Central, Forum, Amphitheatre Herculaneum - Froum, Suburban |
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Everyday Life:
Water Supply & Sanitation |
Abundant amounf of evidence - fountains, baths, toilets
Both towns had good water supply - carried from springs in Apennine Mountains Castellum aquae - reservoir for Pompeii Foricae - public toilets common Lead pipers under footpaths carried water from storage to town |
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Public Buildings
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Dontation fo a public building seen as a virtue in Roman society
Few public buildings in Herculaneum Most public buildings had a religious element |
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Public Buildings:
Basilicas |
Large rectangular building located on south-western side of Forum
Five entrances from Forum More Greek than Roman style Housed law courts Graffiti suggests it was also a place where business transactions were negotiated |
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Public Buildings:
Fora |
Large open area of a Roman town where maint public buildings were located and where there was a space for meetings
Trigangular - located near theatres Main - located in south-western section, 40x150m, paved limestone Herculaneum still buried |
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Public Buildings:
Theatres |
Large - seating up to 5,000 people, built on natural slope, performances in open air in daylight, textile awning used to shade audience, Greek and Roman plays
Small (Odeon) - seating up to 1,000 people, mime, poetry and music performed, paid for by duumviri |
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Public Buildings:
Amphitheatres |
Called a spectacular
Built of stone in shape of an oval Front seats elevated and protected by stone wall Protective nets apparently erected above wall No roof |
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Public Buildings:
Palaestrae |
Public area for exercise or athletics
Popular sports included running, discus, wrestling and swimming Pompeii's built at public expense in response to Augustus' desire to provide young people with facilities where they could exercise |
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Private Buildings:
Villas |
Built in countryside
Based on features of the atrium house but utilising more space Grounds include pools, orchards and vineyards 100 identified |
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Private Buildings:
Houses |
Reflected social status
Four types - one or two roomed, two to seven roomed, eight to thirteen roomed (average) and larger houses 800 houses excavated at Pompeii Generally 'inward-looking' Rooms opened into an inner courtyard of garden Lower floors - few windows Upper floors - large windows and balconies Not heavily furnished - light and portable |
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Private Buildings:
Housing Features |
Atrium - formal entrance
Cubiculum - small room (bedroom) Exedra - garden room Taberna - shop Tablinium - office/study Triclinium - dining area Vestibulum - entrance hall Compluvium - opening in roof Impluvian - collect water Peristylium - colonnaded garden Laraium - family shrine Culina - kitchen |
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Private Buildings:
Rented Accomondation |
People rented lofts, rooms and apartments
Apartment block in Via del Foro 450 examples of small independent dwellings in Pompeii Julia Felix rented rooms on her estates after AD 62 |
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Private Buildings:
Shops |
No separate commercial or residential areas
Wide range - workshops, commercial premises, amenities Interior fitting usually included a counter and shelving More than 600 shops in Pompeii 20 taverns and over 130 small thermoplia |
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Religion
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Largely followed Roman religious beliefs and practices
Largely concerned with ritual, not fauth or belief Polytheistic |
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Religion:
Temples |
No temples at Herculaneum
10 temples at Pompeii Main - Jupiter, Vespasian, Public Lares, Venus, Fortuna Augusta, Apollo, Isis |
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Religion:
Household Gods |
Lares - protective deities, venerated in the form of small statues, usually in pairs
Every home had its own shrine or laraium usually located in the atrium |
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Religion:
Imperial Cult |
Cult of emperor worship did not develop until the time of Augustus
Imperial cult became especially prominent in provincial cities and towns Gave citizens opportunities to publicise their loyalty to the emperor Temple of Augustan Fortune, Temple of Vespian |
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Religion:
Foreign Cults |
Society tolerant of the worship of foreign gods and the practices of imported cults
Cult of Isis very popular Small amount of evidence suggest that Jews lived in Pompeii Cults - Dionysus (Greek), Cybele and Sabazius (Phrygian) |
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Religion:
Tombs |
Dead buried outside city walls of Pompeii - none at Herculaneum yet
Citizens buried with freedmen and freewomen Herm - marking of urns buried in ground Rich and poor interred close together |
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Influence of Greek & Egyptian Cultures:
Art |
'Alexander' mosaic in House of Faun
Copies of Greek statuary Egyptian elements in statues of Isis Decorative uses of sphinxes and obelisks |
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Influence of Greek & Egyptian Cultures:
Architecture |
Theatres and palaestrae in Pompeii reflect Greek influence in ornamentation
Herculaneum palaestraw shows Greek influence in decoration Peristyle based on Greek design Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns |
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Influence of Greek & Egyptian Cultures:
Religion |
Worship of Greek gods - Apollo, Demeter and Dionysus
Worship of Egyptian deities - Isis and Osiris Some houses had garden shrines to Egyptian gods |
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Archaeologist:
Giuseppe Fiorelli |
1860-75
Systematic approach to excavation Divided Pompeii into 9 regions, each containing 22 blocks (insulae) Cleared debris Found cavities and filled with plaster of Paris to create plaster casts of bodies |
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Archaeologist:
Vittorio Spinazzola |
1910-23
First to record excavations using photgraphy Cleared most of Via dell' Abbondanza Excavated severl buildings Attempted to reveal commercial life of Pompeii through reconstruction of shop front |
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Archaeologist:
Amedeo Maiuri |
1924-61
Resumed digging at Herculaneum in 1923 - excavated Insual III by 1929 Undertook extensive excavation program of 10 insulae in Pompeii and Herculaneum Oversaw resoration after WW2 bombing Ignored systematic documentation of work done |
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Archaeologist:
Fausto Zevi |
1977-81
Stopped all excavation, shifting focus to restoration and conservation Initiated complete inventory of all buildings and establishments of extensive photographic archive Re-evaluated approaches to restoration and ongoing conservation of sites |
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Changing Interpretations:
Impact of New Research & Technologies |
Admin of the sites emphasis over past 30 years have been on resoration and conservation - technology reflected this
Digital, X-rays and computer enhanced imagery have aided reinterpretation of human remains |
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Issues of Conservation & Reconstruction:
Impact of Tourism |
Pompeii has over 2.4 million visitors and Herculaneum 500,000 per year - dependent on tourism for income
Human activity main factor in grdual decline of both sites Pollution and garbage disposal related problems |
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Issues of Conservation & Reconstruction:
Plants & Animals |
Feral dogs were an issue in Pompeii - occupied the buildings around Froum in 1980s but now removed
Pigeons a problem in Herculaneium - acidic nature of their faeces wears away roofs and walls |
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Ethical Issues:
Study & Display of Human Remains |
Increasing ehtical pressure to reinter bones collected from excavations over past 250 years
Guidelines or code of ethics have established for dealing with human archaeological artefacts Presure also for museums to return remains to place of origin New technologies (3D computer simulation) can replace actual remains |
