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54 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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OTTOMAN EMPIRE (1200s-1900s)
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Under Osman (r. 1299- 1326), the Turks consolidated their power by attracting artisans, merchants, bureaucrats, and clerics
a. Ottomans became champions of Sunni Islam b. By the mid- fourteenth century, The Ottomans created a vast multiethnic, multilingual empire in the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia. Religious tolerance. c. Ottomans created a large bureaucracy under the Sultan. d. Pashas (regional governors) paid to be in office. e. House of Osman - ruling family f. Janissaries - military slaves g. Grand Vizier was the prime minister of the Ottoman sultan, with absolute power of attorney and, in principle, dismissible only by the sultan himself |
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Conquest of Constantinople
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a. The empire's expansion due to their military power, which generated vast financial and administrative rewards
b. Mehmed the Conqueror (r. 1451- 1481) - 1453 conquest of Constantinople, which he renamed Istanbul. His men had loyalty to him, but only when they were conquering things. c. The fall had positive cultural benefits for Western Europe, as Christian refugees brought classical text to Western Europe, stimulating a Europe an renaissance d. Ottoman military expansion continued with the conquest of European cities in Greece, Bosnia, Italy, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria e. By the late 15th century, Ottomans controlled ports and sea routes on the Mediterranean, blocking European access to Asian trade |
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Suleiman (ruled 1520-66)
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Under Suleiman (r. 1520- 1566), Ottomans reached the height of their territorial expansion with 25 million subjects. Called "The Great Turk," "the Lawgiver," and "the Magnificent"; gifted military leader and administrator
Istanbul and the Topkapi Palace reflected the splendor, power, and wealth of the Islamic Ottoman Empire a. Among other construction projects, Suleiman built his crowning architectural achievement—the Suleymaniye Mosque—opposite the Hagia Sophia, the most sacred of Christian cathedral Ottoman navy laughable except under Suleiman. Expansion, threatened Vienna. After Suleiman, the Ottoman Empire faced a period of territorial losses and decline The inflow of New World silver into Ottoman commercial networks destabilized the empire i. Ottoman rulers avoided trade with the outside world ii. Merchants increasingly defied commercial regulations and traded commodities such as wheat, copper, and wool to Europeans for silver iii. Illegal trade did not enrich the imperial coffers; the government resorted to deficit spending c. Deficits, shortages, and the inflow of silver sparked runaway inflation from 1550 to 1650, eventually leading to murder of Sultan Ibrahim by own officials. |
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Mamluks
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a. Biggest threat to breakaway pressures in the Ottoman Empire was from Egypt in the seventeenth century
b. Egypt, ruled by the Mamluks (Arabic for owned) was conquered in 1517, the Ottoman's greatest conquest and wealthiest territory d. The Ottomans had allowed the Mamluks to remain, but they overpowered Ottoman administrators by the seventeenth century by: aligning themselves with Egyptian merchants and to the Egyptian ulama, while keeping taxes for themselves instead of paying the Ottoman administrators |
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Koprulu Reforms/Koprulu family
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a. The Ottoman state remained resilient because of reforms instigated from the center, by its administrative elite
b. The Koprulu family, who controlled the office of grand vizier, attempted to revitalize the empire through political and military reforms c. Reforms led to a new burst of energy, and the military acquired some of its lost territories. d. The Austro-Ottoman war halted Ottoman expansion, and they lost major European possessions, including Hungary e. By the end of the seventeenth century, the influx of silver undermined their sixteenth-century version of a self contained imperial economy, and opened up the Ottoman Empire to trade with the rest of the world, producing breakaway regimes, inflation, and social discontent |
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Safavid Empire
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After Mongol decline, the Safavid Empire emerged n Persia, based on the Islamic Shia tradition. The region fell to the Sufi brotherhood led by Safi al-Din (1252- 1334)
The Safavids created a religious state, with the Shah as a divinely appointed king. Because Safavids did not tolerate diversity, they never created an expansive empire The dynasty fell apart in the eighteenth century for several reasons: Weak rulers were unable to unify various factions under Shiite religious orthodoxy, Change in trade routes away from Persia brought internal turmoil, Afghan warriors and Tribal elements invaded the empire In 1773, a revolt topped the last ruler from the throne |
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The Mughal Empire
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The Mughal dynasty was one of the world's wealthiest and most powerful empires, which rested on their great military strength
a. Founder Babur (led Turkish nomads) built their military with Central Asian horse manship, artillery, field cannons, and gunpowder. Son messes up, but regains lost territory. b. Babur's grandson Akbar was also skilled in alliance building, using favors and marriages to build the empire c. In the 1560s, Akbar reformed and centralized the tax revenue system, weakening the power of zamindars, or decentralized tribute collectors Hindus make up 1/5 of aristocracy, Lowers Islam emphasis on Muslim rule Mughal rulers used newfound wealth to sponsor monumental feats of architecture and art (domes, color, animals) Mughal Empire reached its height in the 17th century with increased prosperity, but eventually faced internal conflicts with governing dispersed and resistant provinces b. India had a single political authority for the first time under the Mughal regime c. Mughal's main source of wealth was land rents, where peasants planted, in part, New World crops like maize and tobacco d. Indian economy also benefited from European rise in demand for textiles and other Indian commodities e. New World silver fueled economic growth and the use of specie (money in coin rather than note) Local autonomy in Mughal India a. Increased imperial expansion, prosperity, and agricultural development empowered regional and local rulers to resist Mughal authority b. Under Aurangzeb (1658- 1707), the Mughals pushed to expand into southern India by raising taxes on peasants and clamping down on non-Muslims and destroying Hindi temples c. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, a war of succession and a series of peasant revolts d. Mughal authority fell to existing largely in administration and name only e. Taken by the British |
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Taj Mahal
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In 1630, Emperor Shah Jahan constructed the Taj Mahal, a translucent white marble mausoleum for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal; its blended Persian and Islamic designs with Indian materials and motifs are splendid examples of Mughal high culture
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QING DYNASTY/CHINA (1644-1911)
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Despite growing prosperity and sizeable wealth, the Ming dynasty collapsed in 1644 due to local autonomy; and because they discouraged overseas trade
Various Problems of Ming China included: 1. Administrative problems Zhu Yijun, the Wanli emperor (1573-1620), avoided managing the empire and the emperors' role was primarily ceremonial 2. Economic problems a. Expanding opportunities for trade led many individuals to circumvent official rules, while Pirates (officially labeled Japanese but normally Chinese) constantly raided c. Influx of silver from the New World caused severe economic dislocations. By the early seventeenth century, silver imports exceeded domestic bullion (uncoined gold or silver) twenty times to one Chinese economy monetized, as silver became the primary currency. In time of silver abundance, peasants faced inflation; in times of shortage, peasants scrambled to pay taxes. These dislocations often led to revolts The collapse of Ming authority a. Economic problems hamstrung the government's ability to cope with natural disasters and food shortages in the early sixteenth century b. Several formidable rebellions including a rebellion led by the "dashing prince" Li Zicheng who captured Beijing in 1644 then proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming emperor hanged himself on a tree in the imperial garden outside the Forbidden City (a walled imperial city with boulevards, courtyards, and a palace built by Emperor Yongle). When Li Zicheng moved against him, the Ming general Wu Sangui shifted his alliance to the Manchus |
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Manchu/Manchuria
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The Manchus (descendants of the Jurchens) defeated Li Zicheng and started the Qing dynasty (1644- 1911)
The small population of 1 million Manchus governed the Chinese population of 250 million, expanding its realm in terms of territories, economy, and population Early Manchu emperors were successful because they were able and diligent administrators with flexibility and respect for local traditions i. The Qing continued the practice of Confucian principles and the civil service examination system ii. Chinese social hierarchies of age, gender, and kin endured Emperor (Manchu) > 6 Grand Secretaries (3 Manchu, 3 Chinese) > 18 Provinces with Chinese Governors + 9 Manchu Generals Ruled: Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang through local administrative institutions. Destroyed nomadic groups that had hounded China for thousands of years. Qing rulers determined to display their legitimacy and majesty i. Qing officials translated important documents into Manchu ii. Decreed that all Han men shave their foreheads and wear a braided queue in the back in the Manchu practice iii. Banned intermarriage between Han and Manchus iv. Manchu cannot trade, separate Manchu and Chinese v. Closed Manchuria from Chinese immigrants, built a system of ditches and embankments planted with willows intended to restrict movement into Manchuria, called Willow Palisade. vi. Imperial Household Department holds wealth vii. Expanded size of Manchu military, "Banner forces" Emperor Kangxi praises Confucious, hunts nomads, creates ties with Jesuit missionaries who teach him Western Europe math, science Manchu impositions and taxes fell mostly on peasants While Qing rulers relied on an agrarian base, they still carefully regulated long distance trade By imperial decree in 1759, the Qing established the Canton system, requiring European traders to have Chinese guild merchants act as guarantors for behavior and payment of fees Eventually military fades, government corruption, White Lotus Rebellion (1796), ends 20th century. |
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Ashikaga Shogunate (1338-1573)
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was a weak dynasty originating from one of the plethora of Japanese daimyo (warlords) which governed Japan with samurai from 1338 to 1573, the year in which Oda Nobunaga deposed Ashikaga Yoshiaki from office, and burning the capital down. He almost unifies Japan, but gets betrayed, trapped in a burning Buddhist monastery, commits Seppuku.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a follower of Nobunaga, succeeds in unifying Japan and asks his advisers to look over his son when he dies in 1598. Advisors fight each other, Tokugawa Ieyasu wins. |
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Tokugawa Shogunate/Japan (1603-1867)
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In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu seized power and took the title of shogun (military ruler). Tokugawa created a hereditary shogunate that lasted until 1867 and moved the administrative capital from Kyoto to Edo (Tokyo)
Japan dealt with external pressures better than its Asian counterparts; a single ruling family emerged, the Tokugawa shogunate, who regulated foreign intrusion. They dealt with Catholics, who had converted some 300k Japanese, by crucifying 100 people and outlawing Christianity after a peasant rebellion. However, they still want some contact with the West and decide to only deal with the Dutch, who are protestants, in only one port, Nagasaki. |
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Regulation of Culture
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No big ships, no Japanese going abroad
Not many firearms, government controls production Adopts Confucianism Samurais turned into bureaucrats Haiku Prostitution, sex books Geisha - female performers Kabuki theaters make fun of political figures, male actors exclusively Doesn't end in 1800s Medical books, anatomy |
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Wang Yangming
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Russia
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Expansion and dynastic change in Russia
1. Russian Empire became the world's largest-ever state, eliminating the steppe nomads and culturally belonging to both Europe and Asia Originally called Muscovy (short for the Grand Duchy of Moscow), changed by Peter I to establish a connection between Muscovy and medieval state of Kievan Rus' to claim the lands of the Rus'. Russia was controlled by the Mongols from 1230s to late 1400s. The Princes of Moscow led independence from the Mongols in the 1460s. Civil war. Muscovite Grand Prince Ivan III (the Great) ruled Moscow from 1462-1505, he married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, asserting that Moscow was the center of the Byzantine faith. His army consisted of Cossacks, peasant soldiers who fought in return for land. He named himself Tsar (Russian Caesar), worrying the Boyars, the feudal aristocratic class in Russia who traditionally held power. |
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Kiev
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City-state that reached its Golden Age as the center Kievan Rus' in the 10th-12th centuries.
Its political, but not cultural, importance started to decline somewhat when it was completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240. Destroyed again during WW2, currently capital of Ukraine |
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Ivan IV
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The "Terrible"/ruled Moscow from 1533-1584
Grandson of Ivan III He was tormented by the boyars as a child, making him mentally unstable. 1547 - He officially takes throne the day of a fire in Moscow, and takes Anastasia as his wife. He initially makes great reforms, chooses a advising council, forms a new code of law, and lessons corruption and oppression. 1553 - Gets sick and asks the boyars to look after his son if he dies. They refuse. He lives and is quite pissed. 1560 - his wife dies, and Ivan suspects poison. He accuses people on his council and holds mock trials. 1564 - threatens to quit as Tsar 1565 - granted more power, secret police, destroy opposition 1581 - fit of anger, kills own son 1584 - Dies, no heir After his death the Time of Troubles (1598-1613) began, consisting of civil wars, invasion of Poland and Sweden After the dynastic chaos following the death of Ivan IV in 1584, Mikhail Romanov is appointed as new Tsar and he takes over the Kremlin (the medieval walled fortress where the Muscovite grand princes and Tsars lived) The Romanov dynasty held dynastic power until the twentieth century In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Romanovs created an absolute government, with only the tsar and his retinue able to make war, tax, judge, and coin money 2. Nobles served as bureaucrats 3. Local aristocrats enjoyed nearly unlimited authority in exchange for tribute and loyalty to the tsar 4. Peasants became the serfs of the nobles and Tsar, to sustain the crown and the nobility's wealth |
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Peter I the Great (1682-1725)
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pushed policy of modernization/Russia's first "Emperor"
Gives higher pay, appointments by merit, better training, uniforms, and manuals to military and navy Researches West by traveling to Amsterdam, Venice in disguise. Starts paper called "Vedomosti" in 1702, failure. Kunst-Kamera - museum sponsored by Peter I 1. Three factors were key to Russian empire building a. Conquest of Siberia with wealth in fur b. Incorporation of Ukraine's fertile southern steppes c. Victory in war with Sweden and building a new capital at St. Petersburg, achieved by Peter the Great |
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Catherine II the Great (1762-95)
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Closes doors to Western Europe at end of reign
After Peter, Catherine the Great continued to expand Russian territory a. Carved up Poland after placing her lover on the throne b. Defeated the Ottomans, allowing her to annex Ukraine c. By the late eigh teenth century, the Russian Empire stretched from the Baltic to the Black Seas and into the Caucus Mountains |
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EUROPE IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
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Change and problems, lots of people dying, population growth slows down, less demand for agriculture, peasants move to cities, 30 years war, absolutism, larger military, scientific revolution, increase in governmental power, sovereign nations, military training, government struture
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30 Years War (1618-48)
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was Europe's last big religious war, but also political; led to rise of "absolutism" (absolute power to ruler)
a. War between Protestant princes and the Habsburg Catholic emperor for religious predominance in c. Europe b. Struggle for continental control between Catholic powers: the Spanish, Austrian Habsburgs, and French c. Dutch sought independence from Spain d. When it appeared that Protestants would lose, the Swedish king made a timely intervention e. War, famine, and disease killed over 1/3 of the German, Swedish, and Polish population f. Ended with the Treaty of Westphalia signed in 1648, declaring a balance of power between Protestants and Catholics |
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Peace of Augsburg (1555)
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agreement that allowed Lutherans to worship in Catholic-controlled Central Europe (more or less present day Germany/Austria/Switzerland); treaty did not allow for Calvinist worship
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Louis XIV
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ruled France 1643-1715; palace at Versailles became center of power in France
Dynastic monarchies: France and England 1. European monarch attempts to centralize authority met varying degrees of success 2. The French Bourbon dynasty attempted to create an absolute monarchy, free of checks and balances, based on the philosophy of the "divine right of kings" a. Beginning in the seventeenth century, Bourbon families created a hereditary monarchy in which succession passed to the oldest male b. After 1614, French kings refused to convene the Estates- General, composed of three advisory bodies of clergy, nobility, and all others c. Louis XIV built Versailles, a palace where the king could keep watch over the nobility kept busy with fashion and courtly functions |
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Scientific Revolution
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foundation laid in 16th century; most of scientific "discovery" occurred in 17th and 18th centuries, printing press. Bacon's approach that science entailed the formulation of hypotheses that could
Many monarchs supported scientific efforts by funding royal academies of science to show also that the great intellectuals backed the monarchy With increased literacy in Europe, scientific ideas and approaches to understanding the world grew in popularity among the elite Nicolas Copernicus - Polish astronomer; developed "heliocentric" model of solar system Galileo Galilei - Italian astronomer; body will continue in motion unless stopped Sir Isaac Newton - gravitational forces; objects fall at same speed, calculus |
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Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment not only is defined in terms of the spreading of reason and universal laws, but also includes broader developments such as the expansion of literacy, the spread of critical thinking, and the decline of religious persecution
1. The success of the Enlightenment was due to widening patronage networks from religious and monarchical supporters to the lower aristocracy and bureaucratic and commercial elites 2. Enlightenment thinkers sought universal and objective knowledge that would not reflect any particular religion, politics, class, gender, or even territorial boundaries Sixteenth- century civil and religious wars, dynastic conflicts, and famine motivated middle- class intellectuals to reason for themselves in order to understand and improve this world Enlightened Despotism - rulers look for new ways to expand control |
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Denis Diderot
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Enlightenment thinkers
1. Europe an Enlightenment thinkers rejected the medieval notion of the sinful nature of humans and believed in the power of human reason and the perfectibility of humankind They also wrote scathing critiques of the flaws in their societies i. Voltaire attacked the torture of criminals ii. Diderot denounced the absolutism and despotism of French Kings Louis XIV and Louis XV iii. Smith criticized mercantilism |
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Laissez-faire
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Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations described universal economic laws. Smith stressed unregulated markets (laissez-faire) with minimal government interference
The "invisible hand" of the market would guarantee general prosperity and social peace Laissez-faire capitalism gave way to an economic order dominated by huge, heavily capitalized firms benefiting from exploitative divisions of labor |
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Mercantilism
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A new economic theory, mercantilism, drove European imperialism
a. This doctrine presumed that the world's wealth was fixed and that one country's wealth came at another's expense b. It assumed that colonies existed to generate wealth for the motherland c. Colonies were forbidden to trade with the motherland's competitors. Mercantilists believed the philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679): "wealth is power and power is wealth" 5. The mercantilist system required an alliance between the state and its merchants, such as chartered companies, with the examples of the English Virginia Company and the Dutch East India Company (the VOC, made to challenge the Portuguese and Spanish influence in the Indian Ocean system) Because of Amsterdam's financial banking strength, the VOC was able to raise ten times the capital of the English East India Company. The VOC goal was to achieve trade monopolies by replacing the native population with Dutch planters in Southeast Asia. In the 1619, the VOC seized the Javanese city of Jakarta (renamed Batavia) and killed or drove out local populations, pushing many into slavery d. In 1621, the Dutch conquered the Banda Islands, killing or enslaving the entire population, for the control of nutmeg e. The VOC conquered Portuguese Melaka for cloves f. The VOC gained control of Bantam for pepper, but did not achieve a monopoly and had to share the market with the Chinese and English European societies replaced traditional networks with new trade routes, and new outposts like Dutch Batavia and Spanish Manila eclipsed old cosmopolitan Asian cities like Bantam |
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East India Company (English)
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The English East India Company monopoly:
Chartered by the British crown since 1600, the company's control over India's imports and exports contradicted British claims of "free trade" a. Initially, the company attempted to control Indian commerce by establishing trading posts and not conquering completely b. After conquering Bengal in 1757, the company and British colonial rulers amassed great fortunes as they collected taxes and kept a portion for their personal fortunes |
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Cartography
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the science or practice of drawing maps
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Captain James Cook
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The scientific voyages of Captain Cook
1. European exploration employed a form of scientific imperialism best exemplified by Cook's three expeditions, which opened up the worlds of Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, and Hawaii to European imperialism and an intensive sort of cultural colonization 2. Scientific and cultural aspects a. Many scientists accompanied Cook during his voyages, including Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus i. They made about 3,000 drawings of plants, birds, landscapes, and peoples unknown to Europeans ii. They classified new flora and fauna according to the new Linnaean classificatory system iii. They gave geographical features English names After Cook's voyages, the British hoped to make Australia a trading port and a supplier of raw materials |
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17th and 18th Century Latin America
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Spanish crown wants more control of colonies to benefit Spain, use of enlightened despotism
Population growth, European society?, tension due to class and race, native uprisings Tupac Amaru II Rebellion - Andes Mountains (Peru), 1780s claims decent from last Inca ruler, lots die |
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Latin American Life
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In Latin America, families dominated the elites holding diverse activities such as owning land, silver mining, government, trans-Atlantic trade
No middle class, but some who know they can eat daily Poor get some relieve from Catholics, alms Spanish try to impose Two Republic System - idea of "Spanish" republics (cities) and "Indian" republics (villages). However, population was too racially mixed 1600s imposed Spanish Caste System - social hierarchy (ladder/ranking) based on your ancestry using "science" Over 100 categories of mixed status example: Mestizo (Spanish and Native), Mulatto (Spanish and African) |
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Baroque Culture
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emphasis on status, grandeur, displays of wealth and power
How does this connect to Latin America??? |
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African Slave Trade (1701-1810)
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During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade soared, which depopulated and destabilized parts of Africa
12-20 million West Africans Portugal has a desire for African gold, but have to avoid Arab Muslim Merchants Portuguese have established a trade post on West African coast, Elmina (The Mine) in late 1400s. West African kingdoms are competitive and can defend themselves from Europeans. However, in 1479 Portugal receives rights to provide African slaves to Spain by the Treaty of Alcaçovas Need for Slavery in Americas as native people die out, need for labor. Use Bible and Aristotle's theory of natural slavery as justification (humans who do not act "human" give up their rights to be treated as humans, and as consequence are "natural slaves"/in Aristotle's words, "There are those who are by nature slaves, that is those for whom it is better to serve than to rule. They are those who do not possess sufficient reason even to rule themselves, but only to interpret the orders of their masters and whose strength lies in their bodies rather than in their minds.") |
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Madeira Islands
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home of Portuguese sugar plantation off the coast of West Africa
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São Tomé
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Príncipe
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Mexico City
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Lima, Peru
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Plantations
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The plantation complex in the Caribbean
1. The most populated English colony in 17th century America was the Caribbean island of Barbados 2. The English and French replicated the Portuguese sugarcane plantation model 3. Because of the decimation of the Amerindian population, African slaves were imported to the islands, making up most of the population 4. Sugar was a "killing" crop a. It flourished in hot and humid climates that fostered diseases b. Overseers worked slaves to death c. Slaves faced inadequate food, atrocious living conditions, and filthy sanitation d. With grueling work schedules of 16 hour days for seven days a week, some slaves dropped dead from exhaustion e. The average life expectancy was 3 years 5. Slaves resisted as they could a. Few incidents of armed revolts in Panama and Mexico b. More common form of resistance was flight to remote highlands or the vast interior c. Other common forms of resistance were subterfuge, foot dragging, pilfering, and sabotage |
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Middle Passage
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crossing Atlantic Ocean in slave ships takes 2 weeks to 5 months
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Bight of Biafra/Biafra
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Africans controlled commercial networks that were responsible for the capture and transportation of slaves to coastal entrepôts
a. In the Bight of Biafra, Eu ro pe an slavers employed the traditional African practice of "pawnship," or the use of humans as pawns, especially kin b. A secret male society called Ekpe enforced promised slave deliveries or would sell the pawns or kin instead |
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Quilombo
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term for runaway slave community in Brazil
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Palmares
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runaway slave community in Brazil that lasted from roughly 1590 to 1690/confederation of 11 towns and 20,000-30,000 runaway slaves
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Olaudah Equiano
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High death rates for slaves in Africa as well as on the trans-Atlantic journey
a. Slaves faced agonizing deaths due to disease, hunger, dehydration, and filthy sanitation b. Olaudah Equiano's testimony gives evidence to the horrors of the trans-Atlantic voyage |
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Kongo Kingdom
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The Kongo kingdom
a. The slave trade brought a century of civil war from 1665 b. Firearms & gunpowder added to the rivalries and havoc c. Some Kongo leaders fought against the European demand for intrusions i. Queen Nzinga (1583- 1663) held off the Portuguese with masterful diplomacy as well as guerrilla warfare ii. Christian visionary Dona Beatriz Kimpa (1684- 1706) was burnt at the stake for attempting to end civil wars and reunify the Kongo kingdom |
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Santo Domingo
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Oyo Empire
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a. The slave trade helped some merchants and warlords consolidate and extend political power with wealth
and arms b. The new Asante state became wealthy because of gold, which allowed them to acquire firearms and slaves, further developing their military and economic power c. Oyo Empire, with its impressive military and commerce, linked tropical rain forest coasts to the interior northern savanna areas |
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Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years' War (1756- 1763), or the French and Indian War, was the culmination of European rivalries, fought in the Americas, Europe and India. The French ceded their Canadian colony to Britain after losing the Seven Years' War.
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Macao
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Chinese port city used by Portuguese
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Peninsulars
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colonial officials born in Spain that ruled over the Creoles (American-born Spaniards), who resented the privileges given to peninsulars
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Plains Indians
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Fleet Street
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