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233 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the properties of muscule tissue?
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- Specialized tissue
- Contractile (cells can shorten) - Depolarizing membrane |
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myofibril
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a contractile unit of muscle cell; a chain of repeating sarcomeres composed of myofilaments
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What is the contractile part of a muscle organ?
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muscle fiber
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What is a chain of repeating sarcomeres composed of myofilaments?
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myofibril
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Each bundle of muscle fiber is surrounded by __________.
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Connective tissue
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A bundle of muscle fibers defined by a connective tissue coat within a muscle organ is called a ________.
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Fascicle
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What type of muscle is composed of fibers with multiple nuclei and striations that produce rapid contractions?
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Skeletal muscle
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What type of muscle is composed of cells with 1 or 2 nuclei and have striations?
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Cardiac muscle
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What type of muscle makes up the heart?
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Cardiac muscle
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How do contractions spread through cell bundles in cardiac muscle?
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intercalculated discs
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Viscera, blood vessels, and arrector pili are made up of this type of muscle.
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Smooth muscle
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This type of muscle has a single nuclei, no striations, and slow contraction rate.
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Smooth muscle
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When each fiber requires nerve input to contract it is called __________.
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Neurogenic
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In muscle that is neurogenic, each cell is isolated by __________.
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Connective tissue
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When nerve input is not required to contract, the innervation of the muscle is called _______
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Myogenic
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What is the distribution of skeletal muscle?
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attached to skeleton
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What is the morphology of skeletal muscle?
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- Fibers with multiple nuclei
- striated |
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What are the functional properties of skeletal muscle?
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rapid contraction that occurs at varying rates
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Describe the innervation of skeletal muscle
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- Neurogenic
- Individual cells are isolated by CT so nerves can be selective about what cells of muscle to target |
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What is the distribution of smooth muscle?
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viscera, blood vessels, and arrector pili
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What is the morphology of smooth muscle?
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- Cells with one nucleus
- No striations |
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What is are the functional properties of smooth muscle?
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slow contraction
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Describe the innervation of smooth muscle.
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- neurogenic - sheet of muscle divided by CT
- cells in a sheet have membrane to membrane contract - Slow wave of contraction |
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What is the distribution of cardiac muscle?
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heart
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What is the morphology of cardiac muscle?
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- cells have 1-2 nuclei
- striations |
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What are the functional properties of cardiac muscle?
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contraction spreads through cells via intercalculated discs which form membrane connections and gap junctions
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Describe the innervation of cardiac muscle.
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- Myogenic
- Contraction rate may be moderated by nerve input |
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To be functional, muscles and/or tendons must cross a ___________ ______.
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Moveable joint
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Muscles only generate a force when they _________. Returning to a ______ state doesn not generate a force.
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Contract; relaxed
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Muscles can only: PULL or PUSH (pick one)
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Muscles can only pull, they cannot push
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Muscle strength is proportional to _________.
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Cross-sectional area
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Points of muscle attachment determine ___________ and ________.
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Speed and strength
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The thin filament of a muscle fiber is made up of _______.
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Actin
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The thick fialment of a muscle fiber is made up of _________.
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Myosin
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What is a repeating unit of overlapping myofilaments that composes the contractile myofibril of a muscle cell?
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Sarcomere
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What is the arrangment of the sarcomere (in terms of fibers)?
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Thick and thin filaments are arranged to overlap
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In the resting phase there is __________ overlap between thick and thin filaments. In a contracted state, there is _________ overlap between thick and thin filaments
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little; lots
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Describe the contraction mechanism of the sarcomere.
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It is a sliding mechanism
- Myosin heads are attracted to active sites on actin - If the active sites are exposed, the myosin heads will bind to them and "grab and pull" |
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Why do muscles bulge?
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It is a result of the overlap of actin and myosin filaments that occurs during contraction.
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How do muscle fibers prevent constant contraction?
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Tropomyosin coils around the active sites on actin to prevent contraction; in the presence of calcium, the tropomyosin uncovers the active site for myosin to bind to
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When a muscle functions to bring a limb back towards the midline, its function is _________.
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Adduction
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When a muscle functions to pull a limb or part away from the midline, its function is ______________.
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Abduction
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When a muscle pulls two parts away from each other, its function is __________.
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Extension
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When a muscle pulls two parts toward each other, its function is ___________.
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Flexon
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Muscles that have the opposite affect of the prime mover are called ___________.
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Antagonists
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The muscle that performs the action is called the ________.
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prime mover or agonist
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The muscle that performs the stabalizer function is called _________.
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Fixator
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The dorsal portion of the myotome is the _______.
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Epaxial muscle
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The ventral portion of the myotome is the ________.
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Hypaxial muscle
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This divides the myotomes into dorsal and ventral regions but is lost in amniotes.
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horizontal skeletogenous septum
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The epaxial muscles of modern amphibians are called the __________ _______.
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Dorsalis trunci
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What is the significance of the muscular sling of the pectoral girdle?
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It is responsible for keeping limbs in place as well as for movement of the girdle
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The muscles that run from the thorax to the shoulder to suspend the anterior part of the body form the ______ ______ _ _ ______ _______.
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Musclular sling of the pectoral girdle
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In mammals, what muscles comprise the muscular sling of the pectoral girldle?
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trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus ventralis, and pectoralis
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Describe the sliding mechanism of the sarcomere.
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- The degree of overlap between the thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments changes to create a contraction
- The sliding mechanism is caused by the myosin head grabbing and pulling the active site of actin - the linked areas of myosin and actin filaments are called cross bridges |
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How is it possible to stick our your tongue?
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Squeeze muscles to produce a "pushing" action
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How can a bird raise its wings given that the muscles for this action are located on the sternum ventral to the wings?
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Muscles have a pulley system where the contraction of the depressor causes a contraction in the elevator
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How is it possible to throw a punch?
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Antagonist muscles counteract prime movers
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Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in fishes.
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myomeres are separated by myosepta, epaxial, and hypaxial muscles divided by horizontal skelegenous septum (except in jawless fishes which have no septum)
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Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in Lissamphibia.
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- Have epaxial musculature in the form of dorsalis trunci(not specialized)
- Have hypaxial musculature in the form of abdominal musculature; this is specialized and works to keep the viscera in place |
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Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in amniotes other than birds.
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- Have epaxial musculature which is divided into transversospinalis, longissimus, and iliocostals
- Have hypaxial musculature which is divided into abdominal, intercostal, and neck musculature - NO horizontal skelegentous septum |
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Describe the general structure and function of the axial (epaxial and hypaxial) muscluature in birds.
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Have reduced axial musculature due to fusion of vertebrate column, and ribs; NO HSS
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What is the mammalian homolog of the cucullaris of chondricthyes?
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trapezius
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What is the mammalian homolog of the adductor mandibulae of chondricthyes?
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masseter, temporalis, and pterygoid
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What is the mammalian homolog of the levator palatoquadrate of chondricthyes?
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Lost in groups with palatoquadrate incorporated into skull????????
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What are the components of the muscular sling for the pectoral girdle in mammals?
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trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus ventralis, and pectoralis
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Why is there no muscular sling for the pelvic gridle?
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The pelvic girdle is directly attached to the vertebrate column
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Gas exchange between blood and the deep body tissues is called _______.
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Internal respiration
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Internal respiration provides oxygen for ________ processes.
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metabolic
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Gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the environment and the blood via the respiratory surface is called ________.
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External respiration
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External gills arise in what region?
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branchial region
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What do external gills arise as?
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filamentous capillary beds that protrude into the surrounding water
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How are external gill slits functional
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- In water with a current, water flows across their projecting surfaces to ventilate
- In still water, specialized muscles sweep them back and forth to ventilate them |
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Where do exeternal gills receive blood supply from
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aortic arch
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Enlaged capillary beds covered with skin, that protrude from the branchial region of an animal and are not connected to branchial arches are called ___________.
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External gills
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This type of gill is associated with the pharyngeal arches and pouches.
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Internal gills
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The interbranchial septum and the operculum cover these.
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Internal gills
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Internal gills receive their blood supply from _________.
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branchial arteries
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What are internal gills derived from?
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aortic arch
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These have 2 stacks of gill filaments that may be seperacted by a septum that extends from the branchial arch.
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Internal gills
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In this type of gills, ventilation involves a muscular pump of the buccal cavity actively driving water across.
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Internal gills
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Gill filaments on posterior and anterior sides are called ______.
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Primary lamellae
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Surface projections on the primary lamellae that contain the respiratory capillary beds are called _________.
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Secondary lamellae
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What are the characteristics of secondary lamellae?
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numerous, tiny and platelike
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If lamellae on both anterior and posterior faces of the interbranchial septum it is a ________.
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Holobranch
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A gill arch with lamellae on only one face of the interbranchial septum is a _______.
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hemibranch
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Has a single stack of gill filaments in its internal gills.
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hemibranch
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This is a skin fold that protects the internal gills and extends from the branchial arch to seperate the two hemibranch.
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Interbranchial septum
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A _____ is a ventral invagination of the endoderm that forms paired elastic bags withing the body that are designed for breathing.
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Lung
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In this breathing structurem sacks are paired with a common stalk (trachea and bronchii).
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Lung
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In this type of respiration, gas exchange occurs directly between the blood and the environment via the skin.
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cutaneous respiration
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The total volume inhaled in one breath is called the _______.
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tidal volume
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Lung ventilation that is bidirectional with air entering and exiting through the same channels is called ________.
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tidal ventilation
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In this type of ventilation, water enters the buccal cavity through the mouth, passes across the gill curtain, and then exits flowing one direction only.
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one-way or flow through ventilation
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A single elongated sac located dorsal to the digestive tract is called a _______.
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Gas bladder
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How is a gas bladder filled?
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- with air that enters via the pneumatic duct or
- with gas secreted from the blood |
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When the gas bladder is used primarily to control the buoyancy of the fush in the vertical water column it is called a ___________.
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Swim bladder
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How does the swim bladder form?
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It is a single evagination of the gut tube, usually mid-dorsal
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A tubular connection that connects the swim bladder to the pharynx is called a ______.
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Pnuematic duct
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When a fish remains in the same location in the water without rising or falling it is at ___________.
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neutral bouyancy
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An accessory breathing organ that retains the pnuematic duct is called a _________.
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Physostomous
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This type of swim bladder is no longer used for respiration and has lost the connection to the pneumatic duct.
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Physocliitus
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The chamber where the pharyngeal slits open is called the ____________.
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branchial pouches
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A tiny respiratory compartment within the lung that opens to a central air chamber and results from the lung lining is called a __________.
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Faveoli
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A tiny, one-way passageway that permits air to flow through the lungs is called a ___________.
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parabronchi
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The smallest subdivision of respiratory tissue in mammalian lungs that are located at the ends of the branching respiratory tree are called _________.
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Alveoli
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Compartments which characterize the respiratory bronchioles into air sacs are called ________.
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alveoli
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This is a thin sheet that connects the diaphragmatic muscles to the posterior side of the liver.
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Posthepatic septum
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This is a muscular pumping mechanisms that changes the shape of the rib cage to create a pistonlike action.
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diaphragm
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Describe how the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm aids in ventilation.
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- When is contracts, it flattens, letting air in by creating a vacuum in the lungs
- When it relaxes, it rounds to expel the air from the lungs |
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This type of ventilation uses two pumps in tandem to drive water in a nearly continuous unidirectional flow across the gill curtain between them.
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Dual pump ventilation
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What are the two pumps that function in dual pump ventilation?
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buccal pump and opercular pump
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In this type of ventilation, the fish swims with the mouth open because they have lost the necessary musculature for the dual pump.
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Ram jet ventilation
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What type of ventilation requires continuous swimming for ventilation?
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Ram jet ventilation
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This type of ventilation emploes the mouth cavity, which expands to fill with fresh aire and then compresses to pump this air into the lungs.
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Gulp/Pressure or pulse pump ventilation
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In this type of ventilation, air is suck in by low pressure created aroung the lungs.
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Aspiration pump ventilation
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In this type of ventilation, lungs are surrounded by moveable structures such as muscle sheets, ribs and a sternum that the surface of the lungs adheres to.
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Aspiration pump ventilation
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How does the air move in aspiration pump ventilation?
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bi-directional and moves air tidally
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In this type of gas exchange, the flow of adjacent current of blood and gases occurs in opposite directions.
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Countercurrent gas exhange
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In this type of gas exchange, the flow of adjacent currents of blood and gases occurs in perpendicular directions.
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Crosscurrent gas exchange
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In this type of gas exchange, a large pool of gases crosses a current of blood.
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Uniform pool gas exchange
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What is the difference between oxygen concentration in water and air?
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Water - 0-.9 - varies with Temp
Air - 21% at sea level |
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What is the difference in the density/viscosity of water verus air?
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Water - 1000x that of air; depends on Temp
Air - very light |
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What is the difference in the rate of diffusion of water versus air?
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Water - slow
Air - fast |
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What is the difference in the metabolic expense in air vesus in water?
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Water - 20%
Air - 2% |
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What is the difference in respiratory structure in water versus air?
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Water - gills
Air - lungs |
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Which type of respiratory structure is better suited for water?
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Gills b/c they are unidirectional; would take too much energy for bidirectional method in water
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Which respiratory structure is better suited for air? Why?
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Lungs; because air is light and lungs allow for bidirectional flow
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What are the major factors that influence the rate of passive diffusion?
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gradient, surface area, distance, and barriers
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Describe the structure of lungs.
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- Ventral invagination of endoderm
- Sacs are paired with common stalk - dead air space |
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How do lungs differ from gills?
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they use air instead of water and are bidirectional
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Describe the structure and function of air bladders in Actinopterygian fishes.
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- made from a single evagination of the gut tube
- usually mid-dorsal - used to control the buoyancy of the fish in the vertical water column - accessory breathing organ which can be used for hearing and sound production |
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How does the presence of a pnuematic duct influence the function of the air bladder?
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W/O pneumatic duct, the bladder cannot be used as an accessory breathing organ
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Describe the dual pump ventilation in water-breathing fishes.
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- Two pumps in tandem - buccal and opercular
- pumps work in synchronous pattern to drive water in a nearly continuous, unidirectional flow across the gill curtain between them - 1st stroke in suction phase caused by the low pressure - 2nd stroke is the force stroke - caused by a raise in pressure of both cavities |
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Describe the pulse pump ventilation in air breathing fishes and amphibians.
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- Use buccal or pulse pump
- mouth expands to fill with air and then when they close their mouth, the air is pushed into the lungs - fish use both dual pump and pulse pump - pulse pump is bidirectional |
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Describe the aspiration pump ventilation in amniotes.
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- air is sucked into the lungs by low pressure created around the lung
- includes rib cage and diaphragm which causes pressure changes - feedding and breathing are decoupled which allows oppurtunity for further diversification of the two systems independently |
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Describe the gill morphology of the lamprey.
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- contain gills in branchial pouch
- water enters and leaves through the pharyngeal gill slits; tidal flow |
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Describe the gill morphology of the chondrichthyan.
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- may have lost their lungs secondarily
- have gills with complete interbranchial septum - distal end contains a flap for pressure - some use RamJet ventilation; have to swim with mouth open - many have lost their branchial musculature necessary for dual pump so they must swim continuously |
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Describe the gill morphology of the actinopterygians.
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- have gills that are covered by operculum
- use dual pump system - have swim bladders that can act as accessory breathing organs |
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What structures or muscles are involved in ventilation in crocodilians?
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- liver moves up and down to push air in and out of the lungs
- have diaphragmatic muscles |
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What structures or muscles are involved in ventilation in turtles?
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- lungs are pushed up against the carapace and therefore they are unable to use their rib cage for ventilation because it is fixed
- do not have diaphragm - sheets of muscles that contract and relax force air in and out of the lungs and air pressure can be altered by moving lungs in and out of the shell |
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What structures or muscles are involved in ventilation in mammals
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- diaphragm that is dome-shaped below the lungs
- depression and elevation of diaphragm allows lungs to expand and contract |
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Describe the bird lung.
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- specialized
- one way flow of air - ribs hinged to create the force on the lungs - use crosscurrent system for gas exchange |
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Why are bird lungs more efficient at extracting oxygen than lungs of other tetrapods?
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high demand of oxygen for flight
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Digestion of food by enzymes secreted by salivary glands is called _________.
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chemical digestion
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This form of digestion involeves the chewing of food with teeth and the churning of the digestive tract to break up food.
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mechical digestion
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What is the function of mechanical digestion?
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breaks up food to increase the surface area available for chemical digestion by enzymes
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The cavity that contains teeth, tongue, and palate is called the _______.
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Mouth, oral, or buccal cavity
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Oral glands empty into the ______.
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Buccal cavity (or oral cavity or mouth)
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This structure is the passageway to the esophagus and is the entrance for food and air.
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Pharynx
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The alimentary canal is composed of the _________, _________, _________, and ______.
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esophagus, stomach, intestines, and clocoa
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Name the 4 layers that compose the alimentary canal.
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1) Mucosa
2) Submucosa 3) Muscularis externa 4) Adventitia or serosa |
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In this canal, food is broken down, absorbed, and waste is eliminated.
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Alimentary canal
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The terminal chamber for recycling fecal materials is called the _______.
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anus
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Progressive waves of muscle contractions within the walls of the digestive tract are _____________.
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peristalsis
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Peristalsis uses alternating conditions of these two layers.
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Circular and longitudinal layers
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What is the function of peristalsis?
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force to move food along digestive tract
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This substance is the hardest substance in the vertebrate body and is found in teeth.
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Enamel
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Enamel is of what origin?
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epidermal
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This is this innermost layer of the alimentary canal.
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Mucosa
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This layer of the alimentary canal include the epithelium that lines the lumen, the thin smmoth muscle fibers of the muscularis mucosae, and the region of loose connective tissue.
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Mucosa
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This layer is the smooth muscle layer of the mucosa and has inner circular and out longitudinal layers.
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Muscularis interna
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This is the second layer of the alimentary canal.
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Submucosa
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This layer of the alimentary canal consist of loose connective tisse and nerve plexes of the autonomic nervous system.
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submucosa
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This is the third layer of the alimentary canal.
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Muscularis externa
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This layer of the alimentary canal has smooth muscle with a circular (inner) layer and a longitudinal (outer) layer.
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Muscularis externa
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This is the surface layer of the alimentary canal.
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Adventitia or serosa
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This layer of the alimentary canal has fibrous connective tissue with mesentery covering in the peritoneal cavity.
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Adventitia or serosa
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Folds of the stomach that occur when the stomach is not distended with food and the wall relaxes are called ______.
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Rugae
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Fingerlike projections that project from the epithelial cells into the lumen are called _______.
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Microvilli
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What is the function of microvilli?
|
increases the absorptive surface of the alimentary canal
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This type of intestine slows the passage of food to increase the time of digestion.
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Spiral valve intestine
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The ____ is a baglike expansion of the esophagus often used to store food temporarily during processing.
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crop
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A blind-ended outpocketing from the intestines through which food circulates as part of the digestive process is call the ________.
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Cecum
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A blind pouch that serves in digestion and absorption an dmay house bacteria for fermentation is called a _____.
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Diverticulum
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A ______ is an especillay well muscularized region of the stomach used to grind hard foods.
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Gizzard
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This is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
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esophagus
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Name the properties of the esophagus.
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ciliated
stratified squamous epithelium keratinized |
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The enlarged region of the alimentary canal that serves for storage, digestion and absorption is call the ______.
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Stomach
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What are the 3 layes of the muscular externa in the stomach
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1. oblique
2. circular 3. longitudinal (will rugae folds) |
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This is a tube in the digestive tract that contains villi and in absorption.
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Small intestine
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This is a straight tube that passes into the anus and does not have villi.
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Large intestine
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A duct formed of cells of the epithelium that secrete mucus and serous fluid is called _________.
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oral gland
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The 2nd largest organ in humans is the _______.
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Liver
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This digestive organ is involved in the production and destruction of blood cells, a well as works to detoxify and remove toxic substance from the blood.
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Liver
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This organ manufactures bile and stores and metabolizes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
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Liver
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The liver stores and metabolizes ________, ________, and ________.
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Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
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This organ serves as both and endocrine and exocrine gland.
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pancreas
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This organ secretes the horomones trypsin, insulin, and glucagon.
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Pancreas
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The system that includes the blood heart and vessels is called the ________ system.
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Circulatory
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__________ serves a transport medium
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Blood
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What are the 3 types/parts of blood and give a description of each.
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- Connective tissue - highly specialized
- Liquid matrix - plasma - Cells - erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platlets |
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This type cell defends the body from infection.
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leucocytes
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This is the name for the red blood cells.
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Erythrocytes
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Do red blood cells (erythrocytes) have nuclei?
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Yes, in all but mammals
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This type of cell releases factors that produce a cascade of chemical events leading to the formation of a clot.
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Platelets
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This innermost layer of blood vessels surrounds the lumen and is composed of very thin sqamous cells.
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Tunica interna/intima
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This middle layer of the blood vessels is composed of smooth muscle and sometimes has elastic fibers.
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Tunica media
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This outer layer of the blood vessels is composed of fibrous connective tissue.
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Tunica externa/adventitia
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These provide the passageway for blood.
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Vessels.
|
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These carry blood away from the heart.
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Arteries
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These transport blood towards the heart.
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Veins
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These serve for exchange of gases in tissues.
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capillaries
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These are vessels that shunt blood flow.
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metarteriole
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This is the artery that carries blood from the heart to the lung.
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Pulmonary artery
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The ________ vein carries clood aways from the lung back to the heart.
|
Pulmonary vein
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This type of muscle is striated and has 1-2 nuclei in each cell/fiber.
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Cardiac muscle
|
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How are adjacent cells of cardiac muscle connected?
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gap junctions
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_________ _____ join cardiac muscle together to form sheets.
|
Intercalated discs
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When a muscle cell initiate depolarization and contraction without nerve input, it is considered ______.
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myogenic
|
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___________ refers to the rate of contraction of a muscle cell being determined by the muscle cells themselves.
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Autorhythmic
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This part of the heart structure is the endothelium adjacent to the lumen and underlying the connective tissue.
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Endocardium
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This cadiac muscle is the connective tissue "skeleton" to which bindles of cardiac muscles attach.
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Myocardium
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This is the thin convering that is continuous with the parietal pericardium that forms the inner lining of the pericardial cavity.
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Visceral pericardium
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This is the tissue that forms the lining of the pericardial cavity.
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Parietal pericardium
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This is the cavity in which the heart lies.
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Pericardial cavity
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The pericardial cavity is lined by ________.
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epithelial membrane
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What is the importance of the pericardial cavity?
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- isolate the heart from surrounding tissues
- allows for the mechanical and electrochemical isolation of the heart |
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This node is where cells that set the pace for the contraction of the heart are located.
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Sinoatrial node
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The heart contraction begins in the _____________.
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sinoatrial node
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A econd node present only in mammals that constists of Purkinje fibers is called the ____________.
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Atrioventricular node
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These fivers are neuronlike fiber that are modifeid cardiac muscle.
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Purkinje fibers
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This is the most cranial chamber of the heart.
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Conus arteriosus
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What does the conus arteriosus arise from?
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Bulbus cordis
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Conus arteriosus contains various numbers of _____ valves.
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Conal
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The anterior chamber of the heart in teleosts that has a thin wall with smooth muscle and no cardiac muscle is known as _________.
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Bulbus arteriosus
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This is the 2nd chamber of the heart to receive blood.
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Atrium
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This is the 3rd chamber of the heart to receive blood
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Ventricle
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This is the first of the four chambers of the heart to recieve blood.
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Sinus venosus
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The ___________ septum divides the ventrical partially.
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Interventricular
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In hagfish, the _______ heart is homologous to the heart of other vertebrates but has no conus arteriosus.
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Branchial
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In hagfishes, the _____ heart is a single, expanded vascular sac that receives blood from one anterior and one posterior cardinal vein, and then contracts to drive blood through the liver.
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Portal heart
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In hagfish, the ________ hearts are paired hearts located in the tail which pump blood in the caudal vein.
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Caudal hearts
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