Communications

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critical thinking

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Rather than responding automatically or superficially, critical thinkers reflect upon their own and others' communication, behavior, and ideas before responding.

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human communication

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A transactional process in which people generate meaning through the exchange of verbal/nonverbal messages in specific contexts, influenced by individual and societal forces and embedded in culture.

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messages

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The building blocks of communication events.

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encoding

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Taking ideas and converting them into messages.

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decoding

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Receiving a message and interpreting its meaning.

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symbol

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Something that represents something else and conveys meaning.

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message creation

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The thought that goes into creating an effective message.

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meaning creation

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Creating meaning within what we say; this is the goal of communication.

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content meaning

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Both denotative and connotative meaning come together to form content meaning.

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relationship meaning

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What a message conveys about the relationship between the two parties.

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setting

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The physical surroundings of a communication event, including the location where the communication occurs, environmental conditions, time/day of the week, and proximity of the communicators.

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participants

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The people interacting during communication.

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channel

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The means through which a message is conveyed (face-to-face, written, electronic, etc.).

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noise

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Any stimulus that can interfere with, or degrade, the quality of a message (loud music/voices, distracting clothing/hairstyles, uncomfortable temperatures, etc.).

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feedback

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The response to a message (can be good or bad).

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Synergetic Model of Communication

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A transactional model based on the roles individual and societal forces, contexts, and culture play in the communication process.
Communication is:
-transactional
-influenced by individual forces
-influenced by societal forces
-influenced by culture
-influenced by context

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field of experience

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The education, life events, and cultural background that a communicator possesses.

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culture

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Learned patterns of perceptions, values, and behaviors shared by a group of people; culture is dynamic and heterogeneous, meaning that it changes over time and that despite commonalities, members of cultural groups do not all think and behave alike.

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ethics

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Standards of what is right and wrong, good and bad, moral and immoral.

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communication ethics

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The standards of right and wrong that one applies to messages that are sent and received.

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Linear Model of Communication

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Source-centered; information transfer; stimulus triggers response.

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Interactive Model of Communication

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recognizes the role of the receiver (audience); allows for feedback; two-way interaction.

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paradigm

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A belief system that represents a particular worldview.

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methods

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The specific ways that scholars collect and analyze data which they then use to prove or disprove their theories.

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theory

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A set of statements that explains a particular phenomenon.

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rhetoricians

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Scholars who study the art of public speaking and the art of persuasion.

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elocutionists

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Scholars in the 19th century who promoted the study of the mechanics of public speaking including proper pronunciation, grammar, and gestures.

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behaviorism

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The focus on the study of behavior as a science.

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social scientific approach

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Seeks snapshots of certain communication phenomena and from them attempts to find universal laws that explain human communication.

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naturalistic

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Relating to everyday, real-life situations, such as a classroom, cafe, or shopping mall.

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quantitative methods

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Methods that convert data to numerical indicators, and then analyze these numbers using statistics to establish relationships among the concepts.

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demand-withdrawal

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An interaction pattern in which one partner criticizes or tries to change the other partner, who responds by becoming defensive and then disengaging (either psychologically or physically).

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attachment

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An emotional tie, such as the closeness young children develop with their caregivers.

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humanism

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A system of thought that celebrates human nature and its potential.

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interpretive approach

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Uses content analysis, ethnographic field studies, and rhetorical analysis to take a more individualized, specific look at human communication.

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qualitative methods

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Methods in which researchers study naturally occurring communication rather than assembling data and converting it to numbers.

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content analysis

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Approach to understanding communication that focuses on specific aspects of the content of a text or group of texts.

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ethnographic

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Relating to studies in which researchers actively engage with participants.

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rhetorical analysis

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Used by researchers to examine texts or public speeches as they occur in society with the aim of interpreting textual meaning.

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critical approach

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Seeks to uncover the element of power that exists in every interaction and to use communication analysis to effect social change.

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textual analysis

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Similar to rhetorical analysis; used to analyze cultural "products," such as media and public speeches.

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multifaceted approach

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The approach in which you use all three approaches to fully and effectively understand communication.

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absolutism

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An act is either right or wrong, there is no gray area.

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relativism

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There is more gray area as to an act being right or wrong; Mill says an act is good or bad based on the consequences.

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public disclosure of a private matter

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Disclosure of a private matter is actionable if:
-the plaintiff can prove that the defendant was the one who publicized the matter to "the world at large"
-the information is offensive "to a reasonable person"
-the aspect of the plaintiff's life is not newsworthy or a matter of public record

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reflected appraisals

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The idea that people's self-images arise primarily from the ways that others view them and from the many messages they have received from others about who they are.

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looking-glass self

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The idea that self-image results from the images others reflect back to an individual.

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particular others

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The important people in an individual's life whose opinions and behavior influence the various aspects of identity.

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generalized other

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The collection of roles, rules, norms, beliefs, and attitudes endorsed by the community in which a person lives.

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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When an individual expects something to occur, the expectation increases the likelihood that it will.

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stereotype threat

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Process in which reminding individuals of stereotypical expectations regarding important identities can impact their performance.

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self-concept

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The understanding of one's unique characteristics as well as the similarities to, and differences from, others.

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self-esteem

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Part of one's self-concept; arises out of how one perceives and interprets reflected appraisals and social comparisons.

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performance of identity

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The process or means by which we show the world who we think we are.

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self-respect

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Treating others, and expecting to be treated, with respect and dignity.

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enacting identities

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Performing scripts deemed proper for particular identities.

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role expectations

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The expectation that one will perform in a particular way because of the social role occupied.

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selection/organization/interpretation

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Selection: choosing which sensory information to focus on.
Organization: recognizing what sensory input represents.
Interpretation: assigning meaning to sensory information.

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cognitive representation

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The ability to form mental models of the world.

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schemas

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Cognitive structures that represent an individual's understanding of a concept or person.

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prototype

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An idealized schema.

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script

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A relatively fixed sequence of events that functions as a guide or template for communication or behavior.

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categorization

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A cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information.

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label

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A name assigned to a category based on one's perception of the category.

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stereotyping

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Creating schemas that overgeneralize attributes of a specific group.

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frame

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A structure that shapes how people interpret their perceptions.

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attribution theory

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Explanation of the processes we use to judge our own and others' behavior.

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attributional bias

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The tendency to attribute one's own negative behavior to external causes and one's positive actions to internal states.

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self-serving bias

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Giving one's self more credit than is due when good things happen and accepting too little responsibility for those things that go wrong.

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fundamental attribution error

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The tendency to attribute others' negative behavior to internal causes and their positive behaviors to external causes.

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ego-defensive function/value-expressive function

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Ego-defensive: the role prejudice plays in protecting individuals' sense of self-worth.
Value-expressive: the role played by prejudice in allowing people to view their own values, norms, and cultural practices as appropriate and correct.

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cohort effort

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The process by which historical events influence the perceptions of people who grew up in a given generation and time period.

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social role

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The specific position or positions one holds in a society.

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social comparison

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The belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their own opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others in order to reduce uncertainty in these domains, and learn how to define the self.