Comd 2500 Chapt 9 School Age Years And Beyond

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majority of the people in the world acquire or learn more than ____ language in their lifetime
___ - ___%of the world’s population speaks more than one language
_____ is more prevalent in areas of the world where neighboring states speak different languages
With language comes ____, ____, ____ – __ ___ __ _____

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one
60—75%
MULTILINGUALISM
HISTORY, TRADITION, IDENTITY – A GROUP OF PEOPLE

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Anthropologist Franz Boas:

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language as reflecting the conceptual ideas and forms of thinking that are characteristic of a culture

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Linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir:

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language does not exist apart from culture

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- ____ through ____ and ____ through _____
- From the time we are born we are both socialized_____ the use of language and socialized ___ the use of language

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LANGUAGE THROUGH CULTURE
CULTURE THROUGH LANGUAGE

THROUGH
TO

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INFANT DIRECTED (ID) SPEECH

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unique speech register used by adults in western cultures to talk to infants from BIRTH

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Characteristics OF INFANT DIRECTED SPEECH

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o Characteristics
 High overall pitch
 Exaggerated pitch contours
 Slower tempos in comparison to adult – directed (AD) speech
o Attracts and maintains infants’ attention
o Infants seem to prefer it to AD speech
o Simplifying characteristics of ID speech are not present in all cultures

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ID speech of different cultures range in its _____ _____ from highly ___ ___ to ____ ____ ____

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COMMUNICATIVE ACCOMODATION from highly CHILD CENTERED to HIGHLY SITUATION CENTERED

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DIALECTS

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regional or social varieties of language that differ in terms of their pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar from one another

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DIALECTS Develop over a prolonged period when people are separated by ___ or ____ ____

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GEOGRAPHICAL or SOCIAL BARRIERS

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ACCENTS

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varieties of language that differ solely on pronunciation

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- everyone speaks some ____ or ____ __ __ _____
- in general, people who speak different ____ of a language can understand one another
- hold some____ in greater esteem than other _____
- sometimes consider one particular dialect to be the standard of a language
o example _____
_____

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dialect or variety of a language
dialects
dialects
dialects
example – Standard American English (SAE)
o Received Pronunication (RP)

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- American English dialects date back to ____ ____
o Incorporated and used vocabulary words that were a part of ____ ____ ____

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COLONIAL AMERICAN
Native American tribes

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- Creation and maintenance of American English Dialects

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o Language contact
o Population movement
o Expanding transportation and communication networks
o Shifting cultural centers

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- LANGUAGE CONTACT

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o Speakers of a language other than English shape the pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary of English in the surrounding area

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POPULATION MOVEMENT

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o Migration of persons from one dialect region to another
 Dialects may begin to vanish in regions that receive large numbers of persons from other areas
 Dialects may become more pronounced in areas where cultural and regional identity is strong

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EXPANDING TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION NETWORS:

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o Affect once isolated regions of the country
Suburban areas are now becoming influential to the development of dialects, just as large urban areas once were

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DIALECTS OF THE SOUTH

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o Appalachian English
o Smoky Mountain dialect
o Charleston dialect
o Texas English
o New Orleans dialect
o Memphis dialect

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General dialect of the region is ____ ____ ____

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Southern American Dialect

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DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF SOUTHERN AMERICAN DIALECT

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- Vowels /ε/ and /I/ the same, meaning that pin and pen sound identical (like pen)
- Use a monophthong
- Y’all and all y’all
- Multiple modals
- Fixin’ to indicate an immediate future action
- Vocabulary
o Coke
o Sub

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DIALECTS OF THE NORTH - - Distinctive phonological features, GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY

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- Distinctive phonological features:
o Dropping postvocalic r sounds as in cah for cr and yahd for yard
- Grammar
o You all, you guys, youse, or yuns for the 2n dperson plural pronoun
o Philadelphians eliminate the object of the preposition with
- Vocabulary
o Tonic and soda for sweetened carbonated beverages
o Grinder, hoagie, and hero as sub

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DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF DIALECTS OF THE MIDWEST

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- merge the /o/ and /oh/ vowel sounds into a single vowel
o ex Don/Dawn, hot/caught, dollar/taller
- Northern Cities Shift (NCS) participle construction
- Pop is the prevalent term for sweetened carbonated beverages
- Sub is the most common sandwich term, but some areas also use
- Grammatical features: need/want/like + past
- the word hoagie

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DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF DIALECTS OF THE WEST

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- Shares some features in common with neighbors to the north and to the south
- Phonologically, many dialects of the west have a single vowel for the words caught and cot, as do dialects of the Midwest
o Fronted back vowels, so that totally sounds like tewtally
- Vocabulary – divided on the pop, soda, coke debate
- Sub is the most popular sandwich term
- Northern part of the west use the word coast to refer to the beach

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIALECTS

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o Transcend region altogether
o Certain socioeconomic classes and cultural orientations speak these dialects
 African American Vernacular English
 Chicano English
 Jewish English

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PIDGINS

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- Simplified type of language that develops when speakers who do not share a common language come into prolonged contact
- No native speakers; used as a 2nd language, particularly in situations where they are conducting business with one another
- Utilize the lexicon of the most DOMINANT of the 2 languages and the PHONOLOGY and SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE of the less dominant language

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CREOLES

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- Pidgins become creoles when speakers pass them down through generations as a first language
- Continue to evolve and become more elaborate and stable with each new generation of native speakers
- Some remain non-dominant in their community, whereas other creoles gain status as official languages

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NICARAGUAN SIGN LANGUAGE

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- Deaf individuals exposed to one another in schools; began to form a true deaf community for the first time
- No common language; used gestures coupled with any home signs they had in order to communicate with one another
- Simple language systems, pidgins, evolved into more complex creoles after new cohorts of children began signing with their older peers
- SPATIAL MODULATIONS
- - As more and more generations of children learn NICARAGUAN SIGN LANGAUGE, the grammatical specificity and precision of the language improves

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SPATIAL MODULATIONS

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grammatical elements that appear in all signed and spoken languages and perform functions such as indicating number, location, time, and a verb’s subject or object

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2000 US Census, ____ of people age _ and over (46,951,595) speak a language other than English at home

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17.9%
5

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DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNERS

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people who acquire 2 or more languages throughout the course of their lives

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BILINGUALISM

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- The process whereby children essentially acquire 2 first languages
- MULTILINGUALISM – acquire more than 2 first languages

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SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUALISM

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- Acquire 2 or more languages from birth, or simultaneously
o Receive language input in 2 or more forms from parents, grandparents, and other close relatives, or childcare providers
- MAJORITY ETHNOLINGUISTIC COMMUNITY OR MINORITY ETHNOLINGUISTIC COMMUNITY

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MAJORITY ETHNOLINGUISTIC

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– a group that speaks a language that the majority of people in an area value and assign high social status
o Generally persons share cultural and ethnic backgrounds
o Official or unofficial “standard” in the community

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MINORITY ETHNOLINGUISTIC COMMUNITY

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group that speaks a language that few people in the community speak or value
o May have lower social status
o May receive little or no institutional support

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SEQUENTIAL BILINGUALISM

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- Learn 2 first languages in succession, usually within the first three years of life before developing proficiency in the first of the two languages
- Same kinds of advantages and setbacks as children who acquire multiple languages in major or minor ethnolinguistic community

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UNITARY LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS

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children are not bilingual until they successfully differentiate between 2 languages

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DUAL LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESIS

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– does not presuppose that children move through stages whereby they come to differentiate between two languages
o Bilingual children establish 2 separate language systems from the outset of language acquisition
- Recent research favors the DUAL LANGUAGE SYSTEM HYPOTHESISS

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CODE SWITCHING OR CODE MIXING

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speakers alternate between languages when they have more than one language in common

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INTRAUTTERANCE MIXING

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alternation occurs within a single utterance

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INTRASENTENTIAL MIXING

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alternation occurs within one sentence

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INTERURRERANCE MIXING

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alternation occurs between utterances

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INTERSENTENTIAL MIXING

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alternation occurs between sentences

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- Children tend to use _____ mixing more than _____ mixing, especially in the 1-word and 2-word stages of development

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INTERUTTERANCE mixing more than INTRAUTTERANCE mixing

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Reasons for code switching

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o Fill in lexical and grammatical gaps
o Lack translation equivalent for a word, no matter whether using more proficient or less proficient language
o Pragmatic effect
o Social norms of their community

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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

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- Second language (L2) acquisition: process by which children who have already established a solid foundation in their first language (L1) learn an additional language
o Usually takes place in the context of a school either as the majority language for a particular community, or as a foreign language

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INTERLANGUAGE

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- During the process of second language acquisition (SLA), speakers create a language system called INTERLANGUAGE
o Includes elements of the L1, the L2, as well as elements found in neither of the 2 languages

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LANGUAGE STABILIZATION

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occurs once the interlanguage stops evolving and L2 learners reach a plateau in their language development

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Avoid using the term LANGUAGE FOSSILIZATION:

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to become permanently established in the interlanguage of a second language learner in a form that is deviant from the target language norm and that continues to appear in performance regardless of further exposure to the target language
o Lack of research on the extent to which L2 learners experience temporary or permanent plateaus in their development

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RESEARCH PARADIGMS
- 12 ways to elicit performance data from L2 learners:

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o Reading aloud
o Completion task
o Elicited translation – oral interview
o Guided composition
o Question & answer (w/stimulus)
o Reconstruction
o Role play
o Free composition
o Communication games
o Structured exercises
o Elicited imitation

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ATTITUDES AND POLICIES REGARDING DUAL LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION

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- Ancient times, students who wanted to read widely had to learn more than a single language

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ATTITUDES AND POLICIES REGARDING DUAL LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION

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- Religious purposes
o Latin – Catholicism
o Hebrew – Judaism

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ATTITUDES AND POLICIES REGARDING DUAL LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION

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o 19th c., Native American tribes often provided dual instruction to their students
o German communities in the Midwest
o Dual language programs were virtually non-existent between WWI and WWII

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ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)

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- English language learning that takes place in the context of an English speaking country, such as the United States or England
- 2002-2003 school year, schools provided services to 4 million students (8% of all students) learning English as a Second Language in the United States
- Current public policy initiatives

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ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)

NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND

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developed and implemented standards to ensure success for children in the US with limited English proficiency

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ESL
o TITLE III

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funding to states to implement language programs and scientifically based and effective professional development

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series of early stages in L2 development
o 1st stage – HOME LANGUAGE STAGE

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children use L1 in the classroom with other children and adults
 Do no persist in using home language for extended period of time

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series of early stages in L2 development
o 2nd stage – NON VERBAL PERIOD

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children produce little to no language as they begin to acquire their L2
 Use gestures to communicate until they have acquired a sufficient number of words to their L2
 Few weeks to a few months; young children remain for longer periods of time

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series of early stages in L2 development
- 3rd stage – TELEGRAPHIC AND FORMULAIC USE

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: imitate others, use single words to label things, use simple memorized phrases
o Not able to create sentences to communicate a variety of functions
o Express a limited variety of functions, such as requesting, negating, affirming, and commenting, among others

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series of early stages in L2 development
- 4th stage – LANGUAGE PRODUCTIVITY

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not yet proficient speakers of their L2; begin to create simple S-V-O sentences as they rely heavily on the GENERAL ALL PURPOSE (GAP) VERBS MAKE, DO, AND GO

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ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL)

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- Differs from ESL in that children, adolescents, and adults learn English in a non English speaking country

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- Reasons for learning EFL

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o Establishing oral proficiency in order to engage in business transactions with English speaking counterparts
o Establishing grammatical proficiency in order to increase one’s chance of being accepted into an English speaking institution of higher learning

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WHAT ARE SOME PREVAILING THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?

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- Theories of L2 acquisition must account for a host of variables, both internal and external to the learner, if we are to translate theories into practice because humans may not begin to learn a second language until several years after birth or even as adults

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“NUTURE INSPIRED” THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

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- Nurture inspired theories of language development: gain knowledge through our experience, and specifically through our interactions with others and with the environment
o Cognitive factors
o Social interactions

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“NUTURE INSPIRED
COGNITIVE THEORY WITH ATTENTION PROCESSING MODEL
- Cognitive Theory of L2 acquisition

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o 1st principle: AUTOMATICITY
o 2nd principle: MEANINGFUL LEARNING
o 3rd principle: ANTICIPATION OF REWARD:
o 4th principle: INTRINSIC MOTIVATION:
o 5th principle: STRATEGIC INVESTMENT

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- Cognitive Theory of L2 acquisition
o 1st principle: AUTOMATICITY

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L2 learners acquire language subconsciously through using it meaningfully, focusing not on the forms of language, but rather on the uses of language, processing an unlimited amount of language forms efficiently and automatically, and resisting the temptation to analyze language forms

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- Cognitive Theory of L2 acquisition
o 2nd principle: MEANINGFUL LEARNING

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L2 learners assimilate new information into their existing memory structures

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Cognitive Theory of L2 acquisition
o 3rd principle: ANTICIPATION OF REWARD

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one factor that drives L2 learners to act or “behave” is the anticipation of some kind of reward, either tangible or intangible, either an immediate reward or a long term reward

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Cognitive Theory of L2 acquisition
o 4th principle: INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

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behavior of learning an L2 can be rewarding in and of itself and so the learner does not need external rewards

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Cognitive Theory of L2 acquisition
o 5th principle: STRATEGIC INVESTMENT

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– L2 learner’s personal investment of time, effort, and attention to L2 learning through the strategies for understanding and producing language that they bring to the learning process

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IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORY FOR L2 TEACHING
Automaticity

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o Large portion of lesson language pragmatics
o Recognize that students require time to use language fluently and with automaticity and exercise patience

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IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORY FOR L2 TEACHING
- Meaningful learning:

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o Appealing to students’ interests and academic and career goals
o Anchor new material into existing background knowledge
o Avoid rote learning exercises

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IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORY FOR L2 TEACHING
- Anticipation of reward

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o Appropriate amount of verbal praise
o Students compliment and support one another
o Short-term reminders of progress
o Display excitement and enthusiasm in the classroom
o Help learners to understand the long-term benefits of learning their second language

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IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORY FOR L2 TEACHING
- Intrinsic motivation:
- Strategic investment:

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o Design lessons with student learning styles in mind
o Variety of techniques

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INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS

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- Similar to Vygotsky’s theory of L1 development
o Rests on communicative interactions between the L2 learner and others
o Importance of communication dynamic
- Emphasis on the L2 learner’s opportunities to negotiate for meaning during conversations by for example, making modifications to speech, using repetition, and clarifying often during the course of a conversation

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IMPLICATIONS OF THE INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS FOR L2 TEACHING

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- Focus on communicative strategies that speakers use to carry out specific language functions
- Students practice selecting and using language forms that are appropriate for specific communicative functions
- Use language with peers and non-peers

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“NATURE-INSPIRED” THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

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- Our underlying language system is in place at birth and we extract rules about our native language apart from other cognitive abilities

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UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR

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- System of grammatical rules and constraints that are consistent across all languages
O Innate, species-specific module that is dedicated to language, and not other forms of learning
O L2 learners acquire elements of language that others cannot teach and that input alone cannot provide
O Suggests that adolescents and adults might experience difficulty in acquiring their L2
O Critical Period Hypothesis: critical period for language acquisition between birth and puberty

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IMPLICATIONS OF UG FOR L2 TEACHING

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- Does NOT have implications for communication context, student motivation, or external input that one gains through interactions with others
- HAS implications for understanding the errors that L2 learners make as they acquire their second language and also for the natural order by which they acquire specific language structures

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MONITOR MODEL
- Monitor Model of SLA has 5 underlying hypotheses:

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o Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
o Monitor Hypothesis
o Natural Order Hypothesis
o Input Hypothesis
o Affective Filter Hypothesis

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MONITOR MODEL
- Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: 2 independent systems crucial to L2 learning performance

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o Acquired system: unconscious system by which L2 learners acquire language through natural communicative interactions with others, similar to the way in which young children acquire their L1
o Learned System: result of a conscious process through which L2 learners gain knowledge of the rules of their L2

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MONITOR MODEL
- Monitor Hypothesis:

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relation of the learned system to the acquired system
o Monitor plans, edits, and corrects utterances that the acquired system initiates when the L2 learner thinks, focuses on correctness, and knows the rule he or she is trying to express

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MONITOR MODEL
- Natural Order Hypothesis

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L2 learners acquire grammatical structures in a natural and predictable sequence
o Order does not vary according to instruction, but instead is the result of the acquired system

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MONITOR MODEL
- Input Hypothesis

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L2 learners move forward in their competence by receiving input that is just slightly ahead of their current state of grammatical knowledge, or comprehensible input
o Input should ideally be at the i + 1 level, where i=the learners current state of knowledge

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MONITOR MODEL
- Affective Filter Hypothesis

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filters that may prevent L2 learners from processing input, thereby preventing acquisition

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IMPLICATIONS OF THE MONITOR MODEL FOR L2 TEACHING
- Natural Approach

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O Affective filters are “down” not “up”
O Introduce grammar and other formal structures only so that students can use this information to “monitor” or make corrections to the output that results from their “acquired” system
O Ensure that the output they provide is comprehensible in order to push students to higher and higher levels of competence in their L2

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THEORY TO PRACTICE
- Suggestopedia: L2 learning method
- 4 main “stages:”

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o Presentation: prepares students to relax and to adopt a positive frame of mind for learning
o First Concert– “Active Concert”– presents language material for the students to learn
o Second Concert– “Passive Review”– invites students to relax and listen to Baroque music; reads the text quietly in the background as music plays
o Practice: games and puzzle to review what they have learned

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Accents

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varieties of language that vary only in pronunciation, not in vocabulary or grammar (contrast dialects)

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Communicative accommodation

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the way in which a culture deals with infant directed speech. It can range from highly child centered to highly situation centered

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Comprehensible input

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Language unit that is just slightly ahead of the learner’s current state of grammatical knowledge. Also knows as the i + 1 level, where i is the learner’s current state of knowledge. Part of Krashen’s (1985) theory that language that contains structures a second language (L2) learner has already mastered will not help his or her acquisition of the L2, nor will input that is too difficult

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Critical period hypothesis

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– The theory that the time between birth and puberty is crucial for language acquisition and that adolescents and adults may experience difficulty acquiring a second language

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Dual language learners

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People who learn two or more languages simultaneously, sequentially, as a second language in school in the Unites States, or as a foreign language in another country

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Dual language system hypothesis

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the idea that bilingual children have two separate language systems from the start. According to this theory, bilingual children do not move through stages whereby they eventually differentiate between the two languages. (contrast unitary language system hypothesis)

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General all purpose verbs

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also called GAP verbs. The verbs make, do, and go. Children rely on these verbs heavily during the fourth stage of L2 development, or the period of language productivity

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Home language stage

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First stage of learning English as a second language. During this stage, children use their home language in the classroom with other children and adults. They usually cease to do so upon realizing that it does not promote successful communication with other people. (see also language productivity; nonverbal period; telegraphic and formulaic use)

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Interlanguage

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the language system speakers create during second language (L2) acquisition. It includes elements of the first (L1) and the L2 as well as elements found in neither of the two languages. Example L1 phonology combined with L2 syntax, such as “I bring not the children” by a speaker with German as the L1 and English as the L2

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Interutterance mixing

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when code switching occurs between utterances. (contrast intrautterance mixing)

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Intrautterance mixing

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when code switching occurs within a single utterance. (contrast interutterance mixing)

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Language fossilization

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when the speech of a second language speaker becomes permanently established in the interlanguage

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Language productivity

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the fourth stage of second language development, in which children are not yet proficient speakers of their second language but their communicative repertoire continues to expand. (see also home language stage, nonverbal period, telegraphic and formulaic use)

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Language stabilization

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in second language (L2) acquisition, when the interlanguage stops evolving and L2 learners reach a plateau in their language development

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Majority ethnolinguistic community

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a group of people who speak a language that the majority of people in an area (eg country, state, province) value and assign high social status. Example: Standard American English (SAE) speakers in the US. (contrast minority ethnolinguistic community)

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Minority ethnolinguistic community

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– a group of people who speak a language that few people in the community speak or value. Example Japanese speakers in the US (contrast majority ethnolinguistic community)

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Nonverbal period

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Second stage of learning English as a second language (ESL). During this period, children learn little to no language, instead beginning to acquire their second language receptively. Some children in this stage use gestures to communicate until they acquire a sufficient number of words in their second language. (see also home language stage; language productivity; telegraphic and formulaic use)

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Second language acquisition

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also called (l2) acquisition or SLA. The process by which children who have already established a solid foundation in their first language (L1) learn an additional language (contrast bilingualism)

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Telegraphic and formulaic use

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the third stage of second language development. In this stage, children begin to imitate other people, to use single words to label items, and to use simple phrases that they memorize. The variety of communicative functions they can express is limited. (see also home language system; language productivity; nonverbal period)

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Unitary language system hypothesis

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the idea that bilingual children have a single language system that eventually splits into two. According to this theory, children are not bilingual until they successfully differentiate between the two languages. (contrast dual language system hypothesis)