Cognitive Test #2

Front 1

Articulatory suppression

Back 1

Interference with operation of the phonological loop that occurs when a person repeats an irrelevant word such as "the" as he or she is carrying out a task that requires the phonological loop.

Front 2

Central executive

Back 2

The part of working memory that coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad.

Front 3

Chunk

Back 3

Used in connection with the idea of chunking in memory, a chunk is a collection of elements that are strongly associated with each other, but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks.

Front 4

Chunking

Back 4

Combining small units into larger ones, such as when individual words are combined into a meaningful sentence. Chunking can be used to increase the capacity of memory.

Front 5

Coding

Back 5

The form in which stimuli are represented in the mind. For example, information can be represented in visual, semantic, and phonological forms.

Front 6

Control processes

Back 6

In Atkinson and Shiffrin's modal model of memory, active processes that can be controlled by the person and may differ from one task to another. Rehearsal is an example this

Front 7

Delayed-response task

Back 7

A task in which information is provided, a delay is imposed, and then memory is tested. This task has been used to test monkeys' ability to hold information about the location of a food reward during a delay.

Front 8

Digit span

Back 8

The number of digits a person can remember. This is used as a measure of the capacity of short-term memory

Front 9

Echoic memory

Back 9

Brief sensory memory for auditory stimuli that lasts for a few seconds after a stimulus is extinguished.

Front 10

Iconic memory

Back 10

Brief sensory memory for visual stimuli that lasts for a fraction of a second after a stimulus is extinguished. This corresponds to the sensory memory stage of the modal model of memory.

Front 11

Long-term memory

Back 11

A memory mechanism that can hold large amounts of information for long periods of time. This memory is one of the stages in the modal model of memory.

Front 12

Memory

Back 12

The processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills, after the original information is no longer present.

Front 13

Modal model of memory

Back 13

The model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin describing memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages, which include short-term memory and long-term memory. It is called the modal model because of the great influence it has had on memory research.

Front 14

Partial-report procedure

Back 14

The procedure used in Sperling's experiment in which he was studying the properties of the visual icon. His participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display.

Front 15

Persistence of vision

Back 15

The continued perception of light for a fraction of a second after the original light stimulus has been extinguished. Perceiving a trail of light from a moving sparkler is caused by this

Front 16

Phonological coding

Back 16

Coding in the mind in auditory form. An example of phonological coding would be remembering something in terms of its sound. For example, since the letters 't' and 'p' sound the same, they have similar phonological codes.

Front 17

Phonological loop

Back 17

The part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information.

Front 18

Phonological similarity effect

Back 18

An effect that occurs when letters or words that sound similar are confused. For example, "T" and "P" are examples of two similar-sounding letters that could be confused.

Front 19

Primacy effect

Back 19

In a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the beginning of the list.

Front 20

Proactive interference

Back 20

A situation in which information learned previously interferes with learning new information.

Front 21

Recency effect

Back 21

In a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the end of the list.

Front 22

Rehearsal

Back 22

The process of repeating a stimulus over and over, usually for the purpose of remembering it, by keeping it active in short-term memory.

Front 23

Release from proactive interference

Back 23

A situation in which conditions occur that eliminate or reduce the decrease in performance caused by proactive interference. See Wilkens's experiment described in Chapter 5.

Front 24

Retrieval

Back 24

The process of remembering infor­mation that has been stored in long-term memory.

Front 25

Semantic coding

Back 25

Coding in the mind in the form of meaning. An example of this coding would be remembering the meaning of something you have read, as opposed to what the letters or words looked like or sounded like

Front 26

Sensory memory

Back 26

A brief stage of memory that holds information for seconds or fractions of a second. It is the first stage in the modal model of memory. Visual

Front 27

Serial-position curve

Back 27

In a memory experiment in which a number of participants are presented with a list of words, __________ is a plot of the percentage of participants remembering each word, versus the position of that word in the list. See also Primacy effect; Recency effect.

Front 28

Short-term memory

Back 28

A memory mechanism that can hold a limited amount of information for a brief period of time, usually around 30 seconds, unless there is rehearsal (such as repeating a telephone number) that can maintain information in long-term memory. Short-term memory is one of the stages in the modal model of memory.

Front 29

Structural features

Back 29

In the modal model of memory, these features are the various stages of the model, such as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Front 30

Visual coding

Back 30

Coding in the mind in the form of a visual image. An example of this would be remembering something by conjuring up an image of it in your mind.

Front 31

Visual icon

Back 31

Brief sensory memory for visual stimuli, which lasts for a fraction of a second after a stimulus is extinguished. This icon is associated with the sensory memory stage of the modal model of memory.

Front 32

Visuospatial sketch pad

Back 32

The part of working memory that holds and processes visual and spatial information.

Front 33

Whole-report procedure

Back 33

The procedure used in Sperling's experiment in which he was studying the properties of the visual icon. His participants were instructed to report all of the stimuli they saw in a brief presentation.

Front 34

Word-length effect

Back 34

The finding that it is more difficult to remember a list of long words than a list of short words.

Front 35

Working memory

Back 35

A limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning.

Front 36

Attention

Back 36

Focusing on specific features of the environment or on certain thoughts or activities.

Front 37

Attenuation theory of attention

Back 37

Anne Treisman's model of selective attention, that proposes that selection occurs in two stages. In the first stage, an attenuator analyzes the incoming message and lets through the attended message—and also the unattended message, but at a lower (attenuated) strength.

Front 38

Automatic processing

Back 38

Processing that occurs automatically without the person intending to do it, and which also uses few cognitive resources. This is associated with easy or well-practiced tasks.

Front 39

Change blindness

Back 39

Difficulty in detecting changes in scenes that are presented one after another. The changes are often easy to see once attention is directed to them, but are usually undetected in the absence of appropriate attention.

Front 40

Cocktail party phenomenon

Back 40

The ability to focus attention on one message and ignore others. The name is taken from the ability to pay attention to one conversation at a crowded party without attending to other conversations that are happening at the same time

Front 41

Controlled processing

Back 41

Processing that involves close attention. This term is especially associated with Schneider and Shiffrin's (1977) experiment, which showed that controlled processing was needed in the difficult, varied mapping condition of their experiment, even after extensive practice.

Front 42

Dichotic listening

Back 42

The procedure of presenting one message to the left ear and a different message to the right ear.

Front 43

Dictionary unit

Back 43

A component of Treisman's attenuation theory of attention. This processing unit contains stored words and thresholds for activating the words. This helps explain why we can sometimes hear a familiar word, such as our name, in an unattended message.

Front 44

Divided attention

Back 44

The ability to pay attention to, or carry out, two or more different tasks simultaneously.

Front 45

Early-selection model

Back 45

Model of attention that explains selective attention by early filtering-out of the unattended message. In Broadbent's model, the filtering step occurs before the message is analyzed to determine its meaning.

Front 46

Filter model of attention

Back 46

A model of attention that proposes that selective attention is achieved by a filtering out of unattended messages. The first early model of attention was proposed by Donald Broad

Front 47

Flanker-compatibility task

Back 47

A procedure in which participants are instructed to respond to a target stimulus that is flanked, or surrounded, by distractor stimuli that they are supposed to ignore. The degree to which the distractor interferes with responding to the target is taken as an indication of whether the distractor stimuli are being processed.

Front 48

Late-selection model of attention

Back 48

A model of selective attention that proposes that selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after the information in the message has been analyzed for its meaning.

Front 49

Location-based attention

Back 49

Models of attention that propose that attention operates on whatever stimuli are at a particular location. This contrasts with object-based attention, in which attention is focused on a particular object.

Front 50

Object-based attention

Back 50

Model of attention proposing that the enhancing effects of attention can be located on a particular object. This contrasts with location-based attention, in which attention is focused on a location.

Front 51

Precueing procedure

Back 51

A procedure in which participants are given a cue which will, usually, help them carry out a subsequent task. This procedure has been used in visual attention experiments in which participants are presented with a cue that tells them where to direct their attention.

Front 52

Selective attention

Back 52

The ability to focus on one message and ignore all others.

Front 53

Shadowing

Back 53

The procedure of repeating a message out loud as it is heard. This is commonly used in conjunction with studies of selective attention that use the dichotic-listening procedure.

Front 54

Spotlight model of attention

Back 54

The model of visual attention that conceives of attention as having an effect similar to a spotlight that, when directed at different locations, increases the efficiency for which signals at that location can be processed.

Front 55

Stroop effect

Back 55

An effect originally studied by J. R. Stroop, using a task in which a person is instructed to respond to one aspect of a stimulus, such as the color of ink that a word is printed in, and ignore another aspect, such as what the word spells. The Stroop effect refers to the fact that people find this task difficult because the ink color differs from what the word spells.

Front 56

Task load

Back 56

How much of a person's cognitive resources are used to accomplish a task. The idea of task load is important for some explanations of selective attention and also for explanations of how people process information in working memory.

Front 57

Unilateral neglect

Back 57

A condition that is usually associated with damage to the right parietal lobe, in which the person ignores stimuli presented in the left half of the visual field. Neglect is usually described as a lack of attention to the left side of space.

Front 58

Zoom lens model

Back 58

A model of selective attention that conceives of attention as being like a zoom lens, in which attention can be spread over large areas or 'zoomed in' to be focused on smaller areas. See also Spotlight model of attention.

Front 59

Alzheimer's disease

Back 59

A condition that eventually results in severe memory deficits, especially affecting the ability to form new long-term memories.

Front 60

Consolidation period

Back 60

The time that it takes for memory consolidation to occur

Front 61

Declarative memory

Back 61

Memory that involves conscious recollections of events or facts that we have learned in the past.

Front 62

Deep processing

Back 62

Processing that involves attention to meaning and relating an item to something else. This KIND ______ of processing is usually associated with this kind of rehearsal.

Front 63

Depth of processing

Back 63

The idea that the processing that occurs as an item is being encoded into memory can be deep or shallow. Deep processing involves attention to meaning and is associated with elaborative rehearsal. Shallow processing involves repetition with little attention to meaning, and is associated with maintenance rehearsal.

Front 64

Distributed versus mass practice effect

Back 64

Memory is better if learning occurs in a number of short study sessions, with breaks in between, than if learning occurs in one long session.

Front 65

Elaborative rehearsal

Back 65

Rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge.

Front 66

Encoding

Back 66

The process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory.

Front 67

Encoding specificity

Back 67

The principle that we learn information together with its context. This means that presence of context can lead to enhanced memory for the information. See also State-dependent learning.

Front 68

Episodic memory

Back 68

Memory for specific events that have happened to the person having the memory. These events are usually remembered as a personal experience that occurred at a particular time and place. These and semantic memory, together, make up declarative memory.

Front 69

Implicit memory

Back 69

Memory that occurs when an experience affects a person's behavior, even though the person is not aware that he or she had the experience. Also called nondeclarative memory.

Front 70

Korsakoff's syndrome

Back 70

A condition caused by prolonged vitamin B1 deficiency that leads to destruction of areas on the frontal and temporal lobes, which causes severe impairments in memory.

Front 71

Levels of processing

Back 71

Part of levels of processing theory that states that there are different depths of processing that can be achieved information is being encoded. See also Levels of processing theory; Depth of processing.

Front 72

Levels-of-processing theory

Back 72

The idea that memory depends on how information is encoded, with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow. Deep processing involves attention to meaning and is associated with elaborative rehearsal. Shallow processing involves repetition with little attention to meaning and is associated with maintenance rehearsal.

Front 73

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Back 73

The increased firing that occurs in a postsynaptic neuron due to prior activity at the synapse.

Front 74

Maintenance rehearsal

Back 74

Rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information.

Front 75

Medial temporal lobe (MTL)

Back 75

An area in the temporal lobe that consists of the hippocampus and a number of surrounding structures. Damage to this area causes problems in forming new long-term memories.

Front 76

Memory consolidation

Back 76

Strengthening of the neural information representing a memory over time.

Front 77

Nondeclarative memory

Back 77

See Implicit memory.

Front 78

Procedural memory

Back 78

Memory for how to carry out highly practiced skills. This memory is a type of implicit memory, because although people can carry out a skilled behavior, they often cannot explain exactly how they are able to carry out this behavior.

Front 79

Propaganda effect

Back 79

When people are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, just because of prior exposure to the statements.

Front 80

Repetition priming

Back 80

When an initial presentation of a stimulus affects the person's response to the same stimulus when it is presented later.

Front 81

Retrieval cues

Back 81

Cues that help a person remember information that is stored in memory.

Front 82

Retrograde amnesia

Back 82

Loss of memory for something that happened prior to an injury or traumatic event such as a concussion.

Front 83

Self-reference effect

Back 83

Memory for a word is improved by relating the word to the self.

Front 84

Semantic memory

Back 84

Memory for knowledge about the world that is not tied to any specific personal experience.

Front 85

Shallow processing

Back 85

Processing that involves repetition with little attention to meaning. This kind of processing is usually associated with maintenance rehearsal.

Front 86

State-dependent learning

Back 86

The principle that memory is best if a person is in the same state for encoding and retrieval. This principle is related to encoding specificity.

Front 87

Transfer-appropriate processing

Back 87

When the type of encoding that occurs during acquisition matches the type of encoding that occurs during acquisition. This type of processing can result in enhanced memory.