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181 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psycholinguistics |
An interdiscplinary field that examinees how people use language to communicate ideas. |
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Phoneme
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Is the basic unit of spoken language such as the sounds a k and th. |
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Morpheme
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The basic unit of meaning.
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Syntax
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Refers to the grammical rules that govern how we organize words into sentences.
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Grammer
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Emcompasses both morphology and syntax it therefore examines both word stucture and sentence stucture.
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Semantics
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Is the area of psycholoinguistics that examines the meanings of words and sentences.
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Pragmatics
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Refers to our knowledge of the social rules that underlie language use.
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Modular
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People have a set of specific linguistic abilities that is seperated from our other cognitive processes, such as memory and decision making.
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Suface Structure
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Is represented by the words that are actually spoken or written.
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Deep Structure
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Is the underlying, more abstract meaning of a sentence.
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Transformational Rules
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To convert deep structure into a surface stucture that they can speak or write.
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Ambigious Sentences
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Two sentences may have indentical surface structures, but very different deep stuctures.
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Cognitive- Functional Approach
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Emphasizes that the function of human language to everyday life is to communicate meaning to other indivduals.
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Nested Structure
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One phrase is embedded within another phrase.
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The Good Enough Approach
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Lanuage comprehension, we frequently process only part of a sentence.
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Heuristic
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A general rule that is typically accurate.
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Neurolingustics
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Is the discipline that examines how the brain processes language.
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Aphasia
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Has difficulity communicating, caused by damage to the speech areas of the brain.
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Broca's Area
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Damage here can lead to hesisant speech that primarily used isolated words and short phrases.
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Broca's Aphasia
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Is primary characterized by an expressive-language deficit or trouble producing language.
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Wernicke's Area
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Typically produces serious diffculitues understanding language.
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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Often have such severe problems with language comprehension that they cannot understand basic instructions such as "Point to telephone"
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Lateralization
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That each hemisphere of the brain has somewhat different functions.
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Language Localizer Task
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Which compensates for the problem technique.
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Mirror System
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Is a network of neurons in the brain's motor cortex; these neurons are activated when you watch someone perform an action.
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Direct Access Route
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You recognize this word directly through vision without "sounding out" the words.
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Indirect Access Route
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As soon as you see a word, you translate the ink marks on the on the page into some form of a sound, before you can access a word and it's meaning.
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Whole word approach
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Argues that readers can directly connect the written word as an entire unit with the meaning that this word represents.
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Phonics Approach
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States that readers recognize words by trying to pronounce the indivdual letters in the word.
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Whole-Lanuage Approach
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Reading information should emphasize meaning, and it should be enjoyable to increase children reading.
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Discourse
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Interrelated units of language that are larger than a sentence.
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Inferences
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Are conclusions that go beyond the isolated phrase or sentence.
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Theory of Mind
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In everyday life we try to figure out the mental states of other people in our life.
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Constructionist View of Interferences
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Readers usually draw inferences about the causes of events and the relationships between events.
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Metacognition
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Which is your knowledge about your cognitive processes, as well as your control of these cognitive processes.
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Metacomprehension
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A term that referes to your thoughts about comprehension.
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Latent Semantic Analysis
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Can perform many fairly sophisticated language tasks.
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Dual Route Approach to Reading
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Specifies that skilled readers employ both (1) a direct access route and (2) an indirect access route. |
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Morphology
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Refers to the study of morphemes; therefore examines how we create words by combining morphemes. |
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Thinking
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Requires you to go beyond the information you were given, thinking also has a goal such as a solution, or belief or a decision
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Deductive Reasoning
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You begin with some specific premises that are true, and you need to judge whether those premises allow you to draw a particular conclusion based on the principles of logic
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Decision Making
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You must assess the information and choose amoung two or more alternatives.
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Dual Process Theory
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Which distinguished between two types of cognitive processing.
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Type 1 Processing
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Is fast and automatic; it requires little conscious attention.
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Type 2 Processing |
IS relatively slow and controlled, it requires focused attention and it is typically more accurate. |
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Propositional Reasoning Task |
Describes the relationship between conditions.
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Propositional Calculus |
Which is a system for categorizing the four kinds of reasonsing.
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Propositions
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Statements.
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Antecedent
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Refers to the first proposition or statement.
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Consequent
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Refers to the proposition that comes second, it is the conseuqence.
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Affiriming the Antecedent
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Means that the "if.." part of the sentence is true.
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Affiriming the Consequent
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Means that you say that the "then..." part of the sentence is ture.
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Denying the Antecedent
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Means that you say the "if..." part of the sentence is false.
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Denying the Consequent
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Means that you say that the "then..." part of the sentence is false.
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Belief-Bias Effect
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Occurs in reasoning when people make judgements based on prior beliefs and general knowledge rather than on the rules of logic. |
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Confirmation Bias
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They would rather try to confirm or support a hypothesis than try to disprove it. |
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Representative |
If it is similar in important characteristics to the population from which it was selected. |
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Representativeness Heuristic
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We judge that a sample is likely if it is similar to the population from which this sample was selected. |
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Small Sample Fallacy
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They assume that a small sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected.
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Base Rate
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How often the item occurs in the population
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Base Rate Fallacy
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Paying too little attention to important information about base rate.
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Conjunction Rule
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The probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be larger than probability of either of its consitiuent events.
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Conjunction Fallacy
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They judge the probability of conjunction of two events to be greater than the probability of either consitiuent event.
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Availability Heuristic |
When you estimate frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to think of relevant examples of something.
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Recognition Heuristic
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Typically operates when you compare the relative frequency of two categories; if you recognize one category, but not the other, you conclude that the recognized category has higher frequency.
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Illusory Correlation
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Occurs when people believe that two variables are statisitically related, even though there is no actual evidence for this relationship.
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Social Cognition Approach
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Stereotypes can be traced to our normal cognitive processes.
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Anchoring Effect
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We begin with a first approximation, which serves as an anchor.
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Confidence Intervals is the Range
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Within which we except a number to fall a certain percentage of the time.
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Framing Effect
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Demonstrates that the outcome of your decision can be influenced by two factors.1- The background context of the choice2-The way in which a question is worded
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Prospect Theory
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To refer to people's tendencies to think that possible gains are different from possible losses.
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Overconfidence
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Means that your confidence judgements are higher than they should be based on your actual performance on the task.
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Crystal Ball Technique
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Asks decision makers to imagine that a completely accurate crystal ball has determined that their favored hypothesis is actually incorrect.
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Planning Fallacy
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People typically underestimate the amount of time required to complete a project; they also estimate that the task be relatively easy to complete.
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My-side Bias
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Describes the overconfidence that your own view is correct in a confrontational situation.
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Hindsight
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Refers to judgements about events that have already happened.
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Hindsight Bias
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Occurs when an event has happened and we say that the event had been inevitable, we had actually know it all along.
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Ecological Rationality
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To describe how people create a wide variety of heuristics to help themselves make useful, adaptive decisions in the real world.
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Default Heuristic
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If there is a standard option which happens if people do nothing, then people will choose it.
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Maximizing Decision Making Style
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They tend to examine as many options as possibile.
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Satisficers
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They have a Satisfing Decision Making Style
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Satisficing Decision Making Style |
They tend to settle for something that is satisfactory. |
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Lanuage is a system that has a hierarchical organization. Name at least three of the layers in the system, and explain which layers are lower and which are higher- that is, what kinds of units combine into larger/higher units of another layer? |
Three layers of the language system are phonemes, morphemes, and syntax. A phoneme is the lowest, and morpheme is the second lowest. A phoneme is the basic unit of spoken language. A morpheme is the basic unit of meaning. And the Syntax refers to the grammar rules when forming a sentence. The syntax is higher on the hierarchical organization than the other two/ |
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Compare and contrast Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia. What kind of lanuage abilities are compromised and which are intact? |
The broca's aphasia is primarily characterized by an expressive language deficit or trouble producing language. This area of the brain is used to manage motor movements. These individuals have a hard time moving their lips and tongue to pronounce speech. Also they can have problems with language comprehension. ex He showed her the baby pictures. He showed her baby the pictures. |
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From the textbook, lecture, or making up your own, provide an example of an analogy. Describe what makes one an anaology of the other. Explain how your example includes surface similarity or structural similarity or both. |
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Define "functonal fixedness". Describe an example of it, explaining what is "fixes" about it. Lastly describe how you could overcome that difficulty when solving a problem. |
Functional fixedness is the tendency to assign stable or fixed functions to an object. As a result people do not think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping solve a problem. |
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Choose one decison that you have been faced with in your life. Provide a brief description of the scenario. Choose a situation where at least two heuristics or bias and analyze why and how each one applies to the situation you have described. |
One decision that I have been faced with in my life was deciding what I wanted to go to school for and where. In this decision I used belief bias effect and representativeness heuristic. A belief bias is when you make judgments based on previous knowledge and beliefs. I used this in my decision making process on deciding what to go to school for by looking at what classes I really liked prior and choosing based off that. I used a representativeness heuristic during this as well because I met and knew some people here and Buff State, and I made the generalization that everyone here was very nice from the small sample I have met. |
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Problem Solving
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The process that a person used to reach a specified goal for which the solution is not immediately obvious.
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Initial State
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Describes the situation at the beginning of the problem
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Goal State
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When you solve the problem
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Obstacles
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In problem solving the restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to goal state.
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Thinking
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In problem solving and decision making going beyond the information given to reach a goal such as a solution.
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Understanding
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In problem solving having a well organized mental representation of the problem based on both the information provided in the problem and one's own previous experiences.
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Problem Representation |
The process of translating the elements of problem into a different format. Choosing an appropriate response will increase the likelihood of solving the problem.
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Matrix
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A grid consisting of rows and columns that shows all possible combinations of the items in the problem.
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Hierarchical Tree Diagram
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A figure that used a tree like structure to show various possible options in a problem. This kind of diagram is especially helpful in showing the relationship between categorized items.
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Situated Cognition Approach
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The proposal that a person makes use of information in the immediate environment or situation, thus, this knowledge typically depends on the context surrounding the person.
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Embodied Cognition Approach
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The proposal that people often use their own bodies and motor actions in order to express their abstract thoughts and knowledge.
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Algorithm
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Is a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficent.
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Exhaustive Search
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In which you try out all possible answers using a specified system.
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Analogy Approach
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earlier problem to help you solve a new problem.
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Problem Isomorphs
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Refer to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specfific details.
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Surface Features
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Such as the specific objects and terms used in the question.
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Structure Features
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The underlying core that they must understood in order to solve the problem correctly.
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Subproblems
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Smaller problems
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Means-End Heuistic
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Is appropriate because it requires you to identify the "ends."
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Computer Simulation
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They write a computer program that will perform a task in the same way that a human would.
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General Problem Solver (GPS)
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Is a program whose basic strategy is means ends analysis.
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Hill-Climbing heuristic
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You reach a choice point you consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal.
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Bottom up Processing
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Emphasizes the information about the stimulus as registered on our sensory receptors.
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Top-Down Processing
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Emphasizes our concepts, expectations, and memory, which we have acquired from past experiences. |
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Expertise
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Demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and performance on representative task for a particular area.
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Parallel Processing
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Handles two or more items at the same time.
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Serial Processing
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Handles only one item at a time.
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Mental Set
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You keep trying the same solution you used in previous problems, even though you could solve the problem by using easier different methods.
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Fixed Mindset
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You believe that you posses a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can help you perform better.
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Growth Mindset
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You believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills.
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Functional Fixedness
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Means that we tend to assign stable functions to an object.
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Gender Stereotypes
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Are the beliefs and opinions that we associate with females and males.
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Insight Problem
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The problem initally seems impossible to solve, but than an alternative approach suddenly bursts into your consciousness.
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Noninsight Problem
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You solve the problem gradually, by using your memory, reseasoning, and a routine set of strategies.
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Creativity
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Requires solutions that are both novel and useful.
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Divergent Production
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The number of different responses made in a test item.
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Convergent Production
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Asks the test taker to supply a single best response and the researchers measure the quality of that response.
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Extrinstic Motivation |
The motivation to work on a task not because you find it enjoyable but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition.
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Intrinsic Motivation
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Motiviation to work on tasks for their own sake because you find them interesting, exciting, or personally challenging. |
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Self Efficacy
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The belief that you have the ability to organize ans carry out a specific task.
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Perseverance |
Which is the ability to keep working on a task even when you encounter obstacles.
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Attention |
An analogy approach is used in problem solving when you employ a situation to a similar earlier problem to help solve a new one. An example that I have is when I took my stats final yesterday I used old problems in my notes, and plugged in the new numbers that were given in a new problem. This includes structural features because you are using the same underlining core of the problem. |
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Working Memory |
A concentration of mental activity so that you can take in limited information. |
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Long Term |
The brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that a person is currently processing. |
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Episodic |
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Semantic |
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Declartive |
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Non declaritive |
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Primary Effects |
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Recency Effects |
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Recall |
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Recognition |
In memory research a task requiring the particpants to r |
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Spreading Activation |
An explicit memory task that requires participants to identify which items on a list had been presented at an earlier time. |
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Spreading Activation |
In network models of semantic memory the process by which nodes excite nearby or related nodes. |
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In network models of semantic memory the process by which nodes excite nearby or related nodes. |
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The large capacity memory for experiences and info accumulated throughout one's lifetime. |
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Memories from events. |
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A person's organized knowledge about the world, including knowledge about words and other factual information. |
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Knowledge about facts and things. |
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Primary Effects |
Items at the beginning of the list to be recalled better. |
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Recency Effects |
A tendency for items at the end of the list to be remembered better. |
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Recall |
In memory research a task requiring the particpants to reproduce items learned earlier. |
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Recognition |
An explicit memory task that requires participants to identify which items on a list had been presented at an earlier time. |
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Spreading Activation |
In network models of semantic memory the process by which nodes excite nearby or related nodes. |
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