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91 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
177. Describe density of rods and cones as a function of degrees from fovea
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Image
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178. What do cones see?
What part of the visual field do cones see? |
Cones see colors and fine details
Cones also see the center of the visual field |
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180. How do surrounding letters affect visual acuity?
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They serve as visual distractors and decrease visual acuity
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180. Describe the visual acuity for word identification
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See Graph
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181. What does word identification depend upon?
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Word identification depends upon high-resolution vision
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182. What is high-resolution vision limited to?
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Limited to the fovea (central 2⁰ of visual field)
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183. How does visual resolution decrease as you move from fovea?
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As you move from fovea to parafovea to peripheral vision, visual resolution decreases rapidly
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184. How far doe the parafovea extend?
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It extends 5⁰ from center
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185. What is the most fundamental task of reading?
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Eye movement
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186. Where do eye movements place words during reading?
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Eye movements are directed so as to place each word in the fovea
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188. What are saccades?
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Ballistic movements that move the eyes from one location to the next (derived from French word meaning "jump")
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189. What is the oculomotor system?
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Neural systems that program and execute saccades
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187. What are two types of eye movements?
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1. Voluntary eye movements (saccades in reading)
2. Smooth eye movements |
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190. How long does it take to program saccades?
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180-230 ms
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191. What are the two stages in which saccades are programmed?
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1. First (labile) stage
2. Second (non-labile) Stage |
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192. How long does the labile stage take?
Can it be canceled? |
1. 140-170 ms
2. Can be canceled |
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193. How long does the non-labile stage take?
Can it be canceled? |
1. 40-80 ms
2. Cannot be canceled |
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194. What is the duration of saccades?
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20-35 ms
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195. How long does it take for information to go from the retina to the brain?
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50 ms
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200. What is an eye tracker?
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-It measures eye movement
-It's used to help learn how we control eye movements |
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201. What are the three types of eye trackers?
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1. Video-based
2. Search-coil 3. Dual-Purkinje Image (DPI) |
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202. Describe the video-based eye tracker.
Four points... |
1. Poor spatial resolution
(⁺/₋ 1.5⁰) 2. Fair temporal resolution (250 Hz) 3. Very easy to use 4. Can be mounted on head; not affected by head motion |
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202. Describe the search-coil eye tracker.
Three points... |
1. Excellent spatial resolution (⁺/₋ 2⁰)
2. Good temporal resolution (1000 Hz) 3. It's invasive; subjects must wear a contact lens |
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203. Describe the Dual-Purkinje Image eye tracker.
Four points... |
1. Excellent spatial resolution (⁺/₋ 1⁰)
2. Excellent temporal resolution (4000 Hz) 3. Uses a bite-bar to reduce head motion 4. Can be difficult to operate |
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206. What are some general properties of saccades with English text?
Two things... |
1. Typically move the eyes forward 7-9 character spaces (2⁰)
2. Character spaces are appropriate metric (due to trade-off between visual resolution and viewing distance) |
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207. What is regression?
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10-15% move eyes backwards
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208. What does regression reflect?
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Often it reflects difficulty with higher-level language processing
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209. What are some general properties of fixations with English text?
Three things... |
1. Typically 200-300 ms in duration (range = 50-500 ms)
2. Visual information is extracted from page only during fixations 3. Approximately 80% of words are fixated in normal text |
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210. What are some prosperities of non-fixated words?
Three things... |
1. Short
2. Highly frequent words 3. Highly predictable words from context |
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211. What two parameters do eye trackers measure and record?
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1. When the eyes move
2. Where the eyes move |
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212. What do these two parameters provide researchers with?
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They provide a complete record of a subject's eye movements during reading
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213. What happens to the data taken by eye trackers?
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The data is reduced (made manageable) using word-base measures (means)
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214. In the following sentence identify where fixation occurs:
"Exercise may spark creative thinking" |
Eye movements in reading
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A. "Creative" = 179 ms
B. "Spark" = 312 ms C. "Creative" - 299 ms (doesn't include regression) D. "Creative" = 487 ms |
215. Identify the following:
a. first-fixation duration b. single-fixation duration c. gaze duration d. total viewing time |
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A. "Creative" = 0.98
B. "Creative" = 0.02 C. "Creative" = 0.24 |
216. Identify:
a. probability of fixating b. probability of skipping c. probability of re-fixating |
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217. How is reading speed measure?
What does reading speed depend upon? |
-Rate is measure in words-per-minute (WPM)
-Rate depends on skill of reader and difficulty of text |
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218. What is the upper rate on reading speed?
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About 400 WPM (with complete comprehension)
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219. What constrains rate on reading speed?
Two things... |
1. Visual acuity
2. Eye-movement times |
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220. What happens when reading rates are greater than 400 WPM?
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Not comprehending, just skimming
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221. Why is reading important?
What is the prominent domain of reading? |
-Reading is a way to understand language
-Eye movement is main domain of reading |
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223. What are some basic language processing effects and what researchers look at them?
Two things... |
1. Frequency effects (Just & Carpenter)
2. Predictability effects (Ehrlich & Rayner) |
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224. What are frequency effects?
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High frequency words (e.g "the") are fixated for less and are skipped more often than low frequency words (e.g "ostrich")
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225. Describe the two conditions of the experiment to illustrate frequency effects.
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-Condition 1 used high frequency words
-Condition 2 used low frequency words |
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226. What was found in the frequency effect experiment?
Two things... |
1. High frequency words fixated for less time
2. More frequent words are better represented in semantic memory and thus have quicker retrieval |
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227. What are predictability effects?
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Predictable words are fixated for less time and are skipped more often than less predictable words
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228. What did Rayner et al. find from manipulating predictable and unpredictable words in various sentences?
Two things... |
1. In predictable condition, p=.78
2. In unpredictable condition, p <.01 (context word) |
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229. What happens in a gaze-contingent experiment?
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Information on monitor is dependent upon where subject is looking
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230. What is a moving-window paradigm?
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Window is contingent on where subject is looking
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231. Moving-Window Paradigm
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Gaze-Contingent
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233. What is the perceptual span?
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Effective visual field during reading
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234. What did McConkie and Rayner look at regrading perceptual span?
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Wanted to determine what is the size of the perceptual span
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235. What was the design of McConke and Rayner's experiment?
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-Varied size of moving window: 13,17,21,25,31,37,45, or 100 character spaces
(screen size = 100 spaces) -Subjects read 500-word passage |
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236. What were the results of McConkie and Rayner's experiment?
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-13 characters (7 character spaces to the right and left of fixation)reduced rate by 60%
-31 characters (15 character spaces to the right of fixation) normal rate -Subjects in all conditions had normal comprehension |
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237. What conclusion was drawn from these results?
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When there was too few characters to the right, subjects did not get all the information they would normally use in reading
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238. What did McConkie and Rayner do in their second experiment?
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Varied properties of text:
X's w/ spaces vs X's w/o spaces |
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239. McConkie and Rayner Second Experiment
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Text
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240. How did the text differ?
Six ways... |
1. X's w/ spaces
2. X's w/o spaces 3. Similar letters, spaces 4. Similar letters, no spaces 5. Dissimilar letters, spaces 6. Dissimilar letters, no spaces |
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241. What were the results for the X's with spaces vs X's without spaces?
Three things... |
1. No spaces: reduced rate for windows < 31 characters
2. Black spaces are used to guide eye movements 3. Space information: extracted up to 15 characters to right of fixation |
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242. What were the results for similar vs dissimilar letters?
Two things... |
1. Different letter shape: reduced reading speed for windows < 21 (interference w/ pattern recognition)
2. Letter shape information: extracted up to 10 character spaces to right of fixation |
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243. How does perceptual span depend upon density?
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-Varies in size, depending upon the "density" of the writing system
-Denser language has smaller perceptual span Examples: Hebrew < English; Japanese < English |
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244. How is the perceptual span asymmetric?
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Right edge extends further than left edge (McConkie & Rayner)
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245. Describe the asymmetry of the perceptual span.
Three points... |
-14 characters left + 14 characters right = normal rate
-4 characters left + 14 characters right = normal rate -14 characters left + 4 characters right = much slower rate |
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246. How are the left and right edges of the perceptual span defined differently?
Two ways... |
1. Left edge = beginning (left edge) of fixated word
2. Right edge = number of visible letters |
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247. How do we know asymmetry is attention-based and not "hard-wired" (Pollatstek et al.)?
Two points... |
1. Extends further to the left for native Israeli speakers reading Hebrew (which is read right to left)
2. For English-Hebrew bilinguals, extends to the right when reading English and extends to the left when reading Hebrew *influenced by language you're reading |
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248. What is the boundary paradigm?
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Gaze-contingent paradigm
Determine how similarity between preview and post view word influence processing of post view word |
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249. Boundary Paradgim
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When boundary is hit, the pre-target word is changed to the post-target word (boundary can't be seen)
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250. What is a fast priming paradigm?
Two things |
1. Prime and target are displayed on the same fixation
2. Look info extracted and time course over which info is extracted |
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253. What are the two types of primes in condition one?
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1. Orthographic (spelling is similar)
2. Phonological (rhyme or sound similar) |
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252. What were the conditions Lee et al. used for the primes?
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-Condition 1: orthographic vs phonological
-Condition 2: related vs unrelated |
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253. What were the prime durations used by Lee et al.?
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5 prime durations: 29,32,35,38,&41
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254. What were the results from the Lee et al. experiment?
Four things... |
1. Orthographic priming: significant across all prime durations
2. Phonological priming: significant w/ 29-, 32-, and 35-ms primes 3. Semantic priming: only significant w/ 32-ms prime 4. Phonological codes activated very early during identification |
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255. What are other linguistic phenomena
Eight Beefy Chunks... |
1. Semantic processing (Morris; Sereno)
2. Repetition priming (Raney & Rayner; Rayner et al.) 3. Morpheme processing (Hyönä & Pollatsek; Pollatsek et al.) 4. Anaphora and co-reference (O’Brien et al.) 5. Lexical ambiguity (Binder & Rayner; Duffy et al.) 6. Phonological ambiguity (Lesch & Pollatsek) 7. Discourse factors and stylistic conventions (Birch & Rayner) 8. Syntactic ambiguity (Frazier & Rayner) |
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256. What are two theories of eye-movement control?
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1. Oculomotor/Global control
2. Processing/Cognitive control (Reichle is here) |
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257. What is the oculomotor/global control theory?
Three points... |
1. Very little (if any) moment-to-moment control of eye movements during reading
2. Fixation durations reflect a global strategy (e.g., fast rate vs. slow rate) 3. Doesn't have to deal with immediate cognitive processing |
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258. What are three models of oculomotor/global control?
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1. Strategy-Tactics (O’Regan, 1992)
2. Word-Targeting (Reilly & O’Regan, 1998) 3. Minimal Control (Suppes, 1994) |
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259. What is the processing/cognitive control theory?
Three points... |
1. Significant moment-to-moment control of eye movements during reading
2. Fixation durations reflect cognitive (linguistic) processing (e.g., word identification) 3. Cognition does influence moment to moment decision of eye movement |
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260. What are three models of processing/cognitive control?
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1. Reader (Just & Carpenter)
2. ASM (Reilly, 1983) 3. Mr. Chips (1997) |
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261. What are the core assumptions of Reader (Just & Carpenter, 1980)
Two assumptions.... |
1. Immediacy Hypothesis
2. Eye-Mind Hypothesis |
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261. What is the immediacy hypothesis?
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The eyes do not move from a word until all processing on that word is finished
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262. What is the eye-mind hypothesis
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Only the word that is being fixated is processed.
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263. What are two problem with these two hypotheses?
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1. Spillover effects (contradicts immediacy)
2. Parafoveal preview (contradicts eye-mind) |
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264. What are spillover effects?
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Processing difficulty on one word can “spill over,” inflating fixation times on subsequent words
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265. What is parafoveal preview?
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The word immediately to the right of the fixated word can sometime be identified (e.g., skipping)
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266. What are two assumptions of E-Z Reader
(Reichle et al., 1998,1999,2003,2006) |
1. Attention is allocated to only one word at a time
2. Decoupling between signal to begin shifting attention and signal to move eyes to next word |
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267. What are the three basic systems that work together according to E-Z Reader?
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1. Word Identification System
2. Visual System 3. Oculomotor System |
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268. What are the two stages in the word identification system?
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Stage 1: Familiarity Check (rapid)
Stage 2: Lexical Access |
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269. What composes the visual system?
Two things... |
1. Early Processing
2. Attention (selection) |
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270. What makes up the oculomotor system?
Three things... |
1. Labile Stage
2. Non-labile stage 3. Saccade generation |
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271. How many stages does programming have?
Which one can be canceled and why? |
-Programming has 2 stages
-Labile stage can be canceled if familiarity check signals movement to next word (how we skip words) |
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272. The time to complete familiarity check and lexical access is a function of what?
Two things... |
1. Words frequency
2. Words predictability |
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251. Fast Priming Paradign
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Lee et al.
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