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72 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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divided-attention task
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You try to pay attention to 2 or more simultaneous messages, responding to each as needed. Accuracy decreases esp if TASK IS challenging.
Driving performance study: Divided attention with cell phones. Research shows driving errors while talking or listening. Wikman says people who practice can perform attention task. |
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selective attention
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Person is instructed to respond selectively to certain kinds of info while ignoring other info.
People notice little about irrelevant task. Simplifies our lives. |
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Dichotic listening
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Type of selective attention: Studied by asking person to wear earphones. One messages is presented in left ear, and different in right. Participant to shadow message. If message not repeated person is not using selective hearing attention.
process 1 message at a time. But can: Both messages presented slowly. 2. Talk not challenging. 3. Meaning of unattended message is relevant. People notice their name in message - cocktail party effect. Attention distracted can notice some characteristics: 1. gender of speaker, name. |
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Stroop effect
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difficulty naming color if word in different color. People take longer when distracted by other stimuli.
Practice can improve selective attention. Emotional stroop task. Ex name incl color of words. Phobic disorder. Ex. name color of ink with words connected to phobia, they are hyper alert of words. Attentional bias. Pay little attention to incl color of word. Explanation: Parallel distributed processing approach Stroop activates two pathways at same time. One for color of ink and one for word. Interference occurs when 3 competing pathways are active at same time. Task performance suffers. Automatic process (reading words) Interfere with less automatic process (id color of ink). Diff to not read words. |
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Selective attention in visual search
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Wolfe: people more accurate in identification target if it appears frequently.
2 stimuli variables: 1. Isolated-featured /combined-feature effect. If target affected from irrelavant items. Simple feature like color. observer canquickly id target. “Pop out” whether 3 or 23 irrelvant items. Distracted by object same shape. 2. feature-present/ feature-absent effect. Treisman: Theme 3 supported. Circle with line pops out. Looking for feature that is present. Captures attention automatically. Circle without line. Absence takes longer.. Absent = must use focused attention. Emphasising both top-down and bottom-up processing. Task more challenging. Wolfe: Feature present/absent effect. Royelen: moving object. But longer to locate stationary object. Easier to spot movement-present object than movement-absent object. Search more quickly for isolated feature and feature present. |
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saccadic eye movements
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Moving eye forward to read next word. Eye movements provide important information about way our minds operate when we perform everyday cognitive tasks.
Ctrl to read: object recognition. (context facilitates word recognition). And Eye movement. Def: Rapid movement of eyes from one spot to next. Purpose: bring centre of retina into position over words you want to read. Fovea: sma region in centre of retina. Better acuity than other parts. Therefore ------- is essential. To mover eye to new words can be registered by fovea. Example of theme one. Moves eye forward 7-9 letters. epople do 150,000 to 200,000 SM a day. Don’t process info when eye moving. |
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Fixation
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Visual system passes about 50 to 500 milli seconds to acquire info that is useful for reading.
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Perceptual span
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number letters and spaces we perceive during a fixation.
Individ diff. Reading. 4 positions to left. and 15 positions to right of central letter. |
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factors the affect eye movements during reading
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Slows down if word is misspelled or unusual.
Good reader differ from bad in terms of SM. Makes larger jumps. Less likely to make regressions. Regression: def. moving backwards to earlier material in sentence. Make regression when don’t fully understand passage. Good reader pause for shorter time. SM sensitive to thematic aspects of material. Help us become more active, flexible readers. |
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two attentional networks that have been identified by neuroscience researchers
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Orienting attention network: Def when selecting info from sensory input this is activated. Responsible for: kind of attention required for visual search, shift attention around to various spatial locatins
Develo 1st year of life. Area active when searching for objects. 2 components in parietal lobe Brain lesion research helped ID these as people with damage to left parietal refion have trouble noticing visual stimuli on right side. Unilateral neglect: spatial deficit for 1 1/2 of visual field. Research use (PET) scan. Shows increased blood flow when person perform visual searches and pay attention to spatial location. 2) Executive attention network: stroop task rely on this. Def: handles kinds of attention with use when a task .... conflict. Responsible for: inhibiting automatic responses to stimuli. Located in prefrontal portion of cortex. Operating when people are asked to hear. List of nouns and state use of each. Active for top down control of attention. begins at age 2. |
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Posner and Rothbart research
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Executive attention imulsive acquire academic skills. Helps learn new ideas. Overlaps with area of brain related to general intelligences. Automatic response and academic learning.
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feature-integration theory of attention
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Examined attention by studying two different stimulus situations.
1. Used isolated features. Used distributed attention. Target should pop out no matter # of items. Can be accomplished in parallel fashion and automatically. 2. Combination of features. (focused attention). Forced to focus attention on one object at a time. Person need more time when large number of distractors. |
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illusory conjunction
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Occurs when overwhelmed with too many simultaneous visual tasks.
Def: Inappropriate combination of features. Human visual system - sometimes has --- problem because system does not represent important features of object as a whole. Focused attention act as glue to stick object shape and color together. - Can create illusory conjunction from verbal material. Form them. That are consistent with expectations. Top down processing help us screen out inappropriate combination. |
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Additional studies have modified theory
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Example: People can search ---- for conjunction targets with practice.
-Reality more complex than clear cut theory. distributed attention can resemble focused attention. -Current research looking at feature. Integration theory on cellular level. But still important framework for understanding visual attention. |
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Consciousness
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Awareness that people have about outside world and their perceptions, images, thoughts, memories and feelings.
Include: Perception of world. Visual imagery. Comments make to self. Memory of events. Plans for actually. Attitudes toward others.Related to attention. Process not identical. - Not aware of all tasks. - Associated with focused attention that is not automatic. -Behaviourist doesn’t study thinking inappropriately. |
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consciousness about our higher mental processes
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Nisbett: aware of product of thought but not process. Verbal report accurate reflection of cognitive processes.
Cog psyc should not rely on people’s introspection. Research findings don’t meet common sense objective research essential in cog psyc. |
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thought suppression
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Wegner: ironic effect of mental control.
Def: our efforts can backfire when attempt to control contents of consciousness. He tested: Tolstoy’s white bear theory scientifically. Initial suppression of specific thoughts scan produce response effect. Revalt: Topic for clinical psyc. And person who experience PTSD and depression, anxiety disorders and psychosis. Too difficult for person with OCD. |
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Blindsight
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Unusual kind of vision without awareness. PErson has damage visual cortex claims not to be able to see an object.
Person believes truly blind. Can report visual attributes such as color shape and motion. Person with ------ can ID these characteristics of visual stimuli based on info registered in other cortical locations. Relevant to topic of consciousness. Visual information must pass through visual cortex to be registered in consciousness. If information takes detour. Important to register consciousness. NOt mirror of cognitive processes. Can’t explain how they operate. Not a black board. Can’t erase unwanted thoughts. Not accurate report. Convergence between consciousness and reality is an illusion. |
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Perception
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Use previous knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the sense. Combines both outside world (visual stimuli) and Inner world (Previous knowledge).
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Object Recognition: (or Pattern Recognition)
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Identify complex arrangement of sensory stimuli and perceive this pattern is separate from background.
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Proximal Stimulus
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Info registered on sensory receptors.
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Distal Stimulus:
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Actual object that is “out there” in the environment.
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Ambiguous figure-ground Illusion
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Figure and ground reversed from time to time. Example Illusion images.
2 components explain this: Neurons in visual cortex become adapt to one figure. People. try to solve visual paradox by alternating between two reasonable solutions |
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illusory contour effect
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Aka subjective contours. Category of viusal illustions. We see edges that are not visually present.
Factors: a) Early stage of visual processing. Same cells respond to illusory contours. b) later stages - visual system tries to make sense of disorderly jumble. Perceive scenes more acuratelly if “We flll in the blank”. ----- leads to perceptual error. |
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Template matching theory
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First modern explanation for object recognition. You compare stimulus with a set of templates (specific patterns) you have stored in brain. After comparing you note the template that matches the stimulus. Stimuli must fit template exactly. Templates = inadequate for explaining complex process of object recognition in humans.
-inflexible. ex. handwritten letter p. Process must have a more flexible system than matching pattern against a specific template. ----------------- only work for isolated letters and simple 2d objects. Visual system doesn’t have template for portions or diff angles of objects. |
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feature-analysis models
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More flexible/sophisitcated approach. Visual stimuli is composed of small # of characteristics or components.
Distinctive feature: what each characteristic is called. Compares list for each component that make up object. Even if it is written, printed or typed the letter R will have similar components. Explains who we perceive variety of 2d patterns. Ex figures in books, patterns on fabric. Consistent with neuroscience and psychological research psychological research ex. Larsen and Bundesen _ Model correctly recognized 95% of #’s written in street addresses and zipcodes. neuroscience ex. Huber/Wiesel. Demonstrate neurons responded vigorously to specific retinal region depending on angle of bar (visual stimuli). Specific neurons respond to vertical, horizontal and diagonal. Problems: Should simply list features of object, must describe physical relationship. Shapes that occur in nature are more complex than letters. Ex. Horse has too many lines and curve sections. |
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recognition-by-components model
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Aka structural theory. Explains how people recognize 3 D shapes.
Assumption: specific view of object can be represented as an arrangement of simple 3-D shapes-Geons. Geons can be combined into meaningful objects. Cup is different than pail. Theory emphasizes the specific way in which these geons are combined. Arrangement of 3 geons gives person enough info to classify info. Essentially feature analysis for recognition of 3D shapes. |
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Bottom-up Processing
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Emphasizes importance in object recognition.
Physical stimuli from environment are registered on sensory receptors. Passed on to more sophisticated levels in perceptual system. Info incl: object’s: shape, color, speed. Info started from most basic level and worked its way up until it reached the more sophisticated cognitive processes. Beyond visual cortex. Combination of bottom simple level features allows us to recognize complex, whole objects. 1st part. |
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Top-down Processing
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Second level of processing.
Emphasizes how person’s concepts and higher level of mental processes influence object recognition. -Specifically = out: concepts, expectations, memories help ID objects. We expect shapes to be found in certain locations and encounter shapes because of past experiences. Expectations at higher level will work any down and guide our early processing of visual stimuli. Especially strong when stimuli are incomplete or ambiguous. Strong when stimulus is registered a second. How it works: 1 explanation: Specific structures along route between retina and visual cortex play role. May store info about relative likelihood of seeding various stimuli in specific area (context). |
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Word Superiority
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Identify single letter more accurately and more rapidly when it appears in a meaningful word than when it appears alone or in meaningless string of unrelated letters.
Example word island. letter s. even though s is silent. Context of sentence facilitates recognition of word in sentence. |
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change blindness
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Fail to detect a change in an object of scene. Will notice improbable change.
Overusing the strategy of topdown processing |
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inattentional blindness
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Paying attention to some events in scene, fail to notice when unexpected but completely visible object appears. Important note: Many of the visual stimul people fail to see are not high ecological validity. Focus only on info that appears to be important.
Theme 2: Our cognitive errors can be traced to the use of a rational strategy. |
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face perception
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------- in different fashion from other stimuli. We recognize objects by identifying individualized features that combine together to create objects. Face recognized in holistic basis. Aka terms of overall shape and structure. Face= terms of gestalt. Overall quality that transcends its individual element. Reason why” Important social interaction.
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prosopagnosia
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Condition people can’t recognize human faces visually but perceive other objects normally.
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face recognition - neuroscience research
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Info from occipital lobe travel to number of other locations through the brain. Temporal cortex, specifically infertemporal cortex responsible for face recognition.
Research methods; single cell. fMRI. fMRI - shows brain responds more quickly to faces presented in normal upright position. Neuroscience demonstrate specific cells in infertemporal cortex responsible for perceiving face. Explain why face recognition follow different rules, holistic approach rather than isolated components. |
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face recognition - applied research
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Focuses on real-life situations that assess our ability to recognize people’s faces. Kemp: Credit card ex. Burton: video survelliance.
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phonemes
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Basic unit of spoken language. SUch as K, Th, A
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four characteristics if speech perception
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1) Word Boundaries
2. Variability in Phoneme pronunciation. 3) Context and Speech. 4) Visual cues as an aid |
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Word Boundaries
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listeners impose boundaries between words, even when not separated by silence. Initially considers different hypothesis about how to divide a phrase into words. Uses our knowledge about language to place boundaries in appropriate place.
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Variability in Phoneme pronunciation
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i)Not easy cuz speaker vary in ptich, tone and rate of producing phoneme.
ii) speaker fail to produce phoneme in precise order. iii) coarticulation - pronouncing particular word, mouth remains in same shape as pronouncing previous phoneme. Phoneme varies from time to time. |
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Visual cues as an aid
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Info from speakers lips and face resolve ambiguity from speech signal. wheel, heel.
We hear conversations more accurately when watching lips. |
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Context and Speech
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Theme one people are active listeners.
-Use context as a clue to help figure out sound of a word. Top down factors influence speech perception. Theme 5. becuase we use our knowledge about language to help perceive ambiguous words. Phomnemic resoration - Fill in misisng phoneme using contextual meaning as a cue. |
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Special Mechanism Approach Aka speech is special approach.
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People born with specialized device that allows us to decode speech stimuli.
Process speech faster than other auditory stimuli. People possess a phonetic module: speech module. Special purpose neural mechanism that handles speech perception. Can’t handly other auditory perception. Helps segment blurred stream of auditory info that reaches ear. Can perceive distinct phonemes and words. Suggests brian organization in special way. Speech module doesn’t rely on general cognitive functioning like: recognizing objects, remembering words, solving problems. |
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Categorical perception
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People can hear clear cut b or p. rather than part way b and p. People have this for some complex nonspeech sounds.Against: influenced by visual cues. People can’t have special phonetic module.
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General Mechanism Approach
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Most favor this approach. We explain speech perception without special phonetic module. Use same neural mechanism to process both speech sound and nonspeech sound. Speech perception is a learned ability. Because categorical perception can detect non speech sounds. Event related potentials - show same sequence of shifts if person is listening to music or speech.
Speech perception develops in stages. Depends on feature recognition, learning and decision making. Ability explored by general perceptual skills and other cognitive activities. Learn to distinguish sound same as we learn other cognitive skills. |
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cognition
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mental activity. Acquisition, storage, transformation and use of knowledge.
Mental processes = perception, memory, imaging language, problem solving, reasoning, decision making. |
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Why is the study of cognitive psychology important?
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Synonym for the word cognition. Refers mental activities. Theoretical approach to psychology. Emphasis on person’s mental processes and their knowledge.
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Wilhelm Wundt
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Responsible of creating new discipline. Psychology should study mental processes. Introspection. - Technique to study mental processes. Observers would systematically analyze own sensations and report as objectively as possible.
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Hermann Ebbinghaus
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Focus on factors that influence human memory. Nonsense worfs to see he could remember. German.
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Mary Calkins
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Similar to Ebbinhaus.
Memory phenomenon - recency effect = out recall especially accurate for final items in series of stimuli. 1st woman in APA. Developed guidelines for teaching psychology. |
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William James
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Theorize about everyday experiences. Textbook “principles of psychology”. Included detailed description of human’s everyday activity. Human mind active and inquiring. Foreshadow topics. Ie Tip of Tongue.
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Frederick Bartlett
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England. Research on human memory. “Remembering : an experimental and social study” Rejected controlled research. Used meaningful material (stories) People made systematic errors when trying to recall story. Memory active, constructive process, we interpret and transform info we encounter. Cognitive psychology appreciated the naturalistic material.
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BEHAVIOURISIM
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Focus on most objective, observable reactions to stimuli in environment. ‘John Watson. Emphasized observable B and rejected Introspection. Avoid terms for mental events such as: image, idea or thought. COntributed to research methods. Importance of operational definitions. Specific how a concept is to be measured. Similar cus cognitive psychology need to know exactly how memory etc will be measured in experiment. Values control research. Learning principles influenced Business, Education and Psychotherapy.
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GASTALT
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Humans have basic tendency to actively organize what we see. Whole is greater than the parts. Objected Introspection of analyzing experience into separate components. Criticize of breaking B into individual stimulus response units ignore context of B. # of laws of why certain components of a pattern seem to belong together. Importance of insight in problem solving.
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major factors that contributed to the development of contemporary cognitive psychology.
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Disenchantment with BEHAVIOURISM.
New developments in linguistic, memory and developmental psychology. B’ism approach does not explore psychologically interesting processes = thought and strategies people use to solve a problem. Important contribution from Noam Chomsky - language to complex to be explained in B terms. People have inborn ability to master language contradict B theory. Lang acquisition can’t be entirely explained by learning principles. Research in Memory. Examined organization of memory and developed memory models. Research found material altered during memory by humans previous knowledge. Piaget. Cognitive strategies change over time. Example : Object Permanence - knowledge og object exists even if it is out of site. |
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Information-processing approach
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2 Components.
1 Mental process can be compared with operations of computer. 2. Mental process can be interpreted as info progressing thru the system in a series of stages, one step at a time. |
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Atkinson- Shiffrin model
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Modal model.
Sequence of discrete steps in which info is transfered from one storage area to another. External Input > Sensory Memory (records info from senses, Stored for 2 seconds or less) > Some lost from sensory memory > Some info goes to Short Term Memory. ( Fragile Memory. Lost in seconds unless repeated) > Some lost from Short Term Memory. > Fraction of Info goes to Long Term Memory (Enormous capacity. Relatively permanent.) > SOme lost from long term memory. Clear cut distinction between short term and long term. Same cognitve psychology sensory memory is actually part of perception. Still favor computer metaphor but think need more complex model to account for human thinking. |
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ecological validity
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Studies are high in ------------- if research is conducted in similar environment as natural setting where results will be applied.
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2 areas of cognitive science.
Cognitive neuroscience. |
combines research techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing structure and function of the brain.
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2 areas of cognitive science.
Social cognitive neuroscience |
Use neuroscience technique to explore cognitive processes we use in our interactions with other people.
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brain lesions
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Destruction of tissue in brain most often by stroke, tumors, accidents.
Research on BL began in 1800/ More advanced in WW2. Examined relationship between damage regions of brain and cognitive deficits. Helped us understand organization of brain results difficult to interpret. |
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positron emission tomography (PET)
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Measure blood flow by injecting person with radioactive chemical before person performs a task.
Brain imaging technique. Brian needs O2 to support activity. Brain imaging technique measures activity indirectly. Based on logic: Measuring properties of blood in different regions of brain while person does task. We can determine which part of brain is responsible. used for : attention, memory, language. Not precise. Used less often. Y? Expensive and radioactive chemical. |
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functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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Measures amount of O2 in brain.
PRinciple - Oz rich blood is an index of brain activity. Head in donut shaped magnet. Magnetic field produces changes in O2. Takes photo of O2 atoms. Developed in 1990’s based on MRI. Less invasive. Measure brain activity that occurs quickly. Relatively precise. Can detect subtle difference in way brain processes language. But not fast enough to capture cognitive processes we do quickly. Can’t provide precise information about person’s thoughts. |
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event-related potential (ERP)
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Records brief fluctuations in brain electrical activity in response to stimuli.
Electrodes on person’s scalp. Record activity generated by a group of neurons. Can’t ID response of single neuron. Can id changes over very brief time in specific region of brain. Reasonably precise picture about change in brain’s electrical potential during task. |
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single-cell recording technique
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Can’t be used on humans.
Study characteristics of animal brain. Electrode inserted on single neuron. |
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Computer metaphor
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Our cognitive processes work like a computer.
Multi Purpose machine that processes quickly and accurately. Operate according to similar principle. Example. We compare symbols and make choices based on decision. Both limited attention (Human)/processing (computer) capacity. Computer model - recipe for cooking. 2 parts. ingredients and instructions. |
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AI
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Creating computer models that accomplish some tasks that humans do.
- Hope to mimic the flexibility and efficiency of human cognitive processes. Research speculate computer program rep an appropriate theory for describing human cognitive processes. |
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PURE AL
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Seeks to accomplish a task as efficently as possile, even if computer processes are completely different from process used by humans.
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COMPUTER SIMULATION
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Takes human limitations into account.
Goal = System that resembles the way people actually perform a specific cognitive task. Most active in research in lang processing, problem solving and logical reasoning. Can’t yet ID objects in everyday scenes, solve problems creatively. |
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parallel distributed processing approach
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AKA connectionism. Neural networks.
Grew out of development in both neuroscience and AL. Discovery of connection amount neurons. An item can’t be localized in specific pinpoint size, region of cortex. Parallel process: Many signals handled at the same time. Uses human brain as basic model. |
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cognitive science.
Explain its relationship to cognitive psychology. (pp. 20) |
Cognitive psychology part of broader field of ------.
Contemporary field that tries to answer questions about the mind. 3. disciplines. 1. cog psyc. 2. AI 3. Neuroscience. |
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five themes
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Theme 1. The cognitive processes are active, rather than passive.
Theme 2. The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate. Theme 3. The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information. Theme 4. The cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation. Theme 5. Many cognitive processes rely on both bottomup and top-down processing. |
