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114 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Phoneme
basic unit of spoken language
Morpheme
basic unit of meaning
Syntax
Grammatical rules that govern how we organize a sentence.
Semantics
meaning of word
Pragmatics
social rules that underlie language use.
psycholinguistics is English-centred
Research focus on english. Different among language with different meaning. ex. pitch of word
Phrase structure
We emphasize a sentence using hierarchal structure based on constituents.
Constituents
grammatical building blocks.
two assumptions Chomsky makes regarding language abilities
Chomsky had two assumptions about language. One: Language is modular. Two language skills are innate.
Ex. ambiguous: Change the present this holiday season.
Describe the difference between surface structure and deep structure.
a)- actual words.
b) - Underlying meaning
ambiguous sentences
sentence with identical surface structure but a different deep structure meaning.
reactions to Chomsky's theory.
Initial reaction was positive.
On the side of unfavorable. THe research did not support his theories that respond
People take more time when they are attempting to process a sentence that requires numerous transformations
Cognitive functional approach: (aka usage-based linguistics)
Function of language is to communicate meaning to others.

Differ from Chomsky's theory: Looks at how people understand the meaning of paragrphs and stories.Attention and memory are cognitive processes intertwined with language comprehension Diff not modular.
Demonstration 9.2 is related to the cognitive functional approach.
shows people use language strategically. Use language to draw attention to important information to the audience. Creativity comes into play and allows an individual to communicate subtle differences of meaning.
negatives - Negative statements
factor affects comprehension
are characterized by containing a contradiction, denial, or refusal. Research has found humans are generally better at processing positive information.
passive voice - Using the passive voice
factor affects comprehension
...... generally requires one to use additional words that can convolute the intended message.
nested structures
factor affects comprehension
Embedding a phrase within a phrase may draw the attention away from the key message.
ambiguity
factor affects comprehension
The audience will take longer to process an -------- statement to decipher which meaning best fits the context.
Neurolinguistic
examine how the brain processes language.
Aphasia
Difficulty communicating caused by damage to speech area of brain.
Broca
Expressive language deficit. Unable to communicate thoughts, needs or wants
Wernicke
Receptive language deficit. comprehension of language - listening and understanding what is communicated.
Lateralization
the left and right hemisphere each have unique functions.
roles of the left and right hemispheres in language processing
Left hemisphere: Language processing. Speech perception, interpret meaning of sound. Determine cause and effect. Reading, understanding meaning and grammar. High imagery sentences activate this side of the brain.
Right hemisphere: Emotional tone of message. Humor. More abstract language tasks.
BOTH work to understand ambiguous sentences.
What did Gernsbacher and Robertson (2005) find in the fMRI study regarding language processing
Number of areas responsible for language activities. Changing a subtle word The to A ... changes the meaning and highlights different area of the brain.
written language differ from spoken language
Reading visual across space. Spoken word is auditory and spread across time.

The rate of input can be controlled by readers.

The standardized nature of writing differs from the variable qualities of speech.

Readers have the ability to reread the content. When it comes to conveying the message, writing is confined to only the words on the page.

Speech encompasses nonverbal cues and other auditory cues to communicate information.

Children require training to develop their writing skills, but naturally build on their spoken language.
Explain how context is used to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words.
Helps us recognize words. Helps us see how and where a word is used. Other words/ sentences are helpful cues. If it appears number times in different contexts.
Describe the relation between working memory capacity and reading.
People with a large working memory capacity are able to do the following:

Process ambiguous sentences faster.
Have the ability to read difficult passages.
Have excellent verbal problem solving skils.
Skills to decipher complicated sentences.
dual route approach
employs both:

A) Direct-access approach: recognize word thru vision.
Visual pattern sufficient to ID meaning.
Access if irregular spelling and not able to sound out.

B) Indirect-access approach: Recognize by sounding out word. Translate printed symbol into sound byte. Use if word can be regular word and can be sounded out.
Research support:
Direct-access approach

Indirect access approach
Direct: a) Recognize words without sounding out.
Mown- down. Asked to read first word silently and then say next word out loud.
Results: No hesitation to say second word correctly.

Indirect: b) Translate visual stimuli into sound.
Sound coding assist working memory.
Research: LION- BARE. Decide if pair of words related to each other.
Findings: Errors occured if paired word sounded same to semantically related word.
Pronouncing word in silent when drawing conclusions.
Child with excellent phonological awareness improve reading ability/
reading material determine if we access direct or indirect.
discourse
Language unit larger than a sentence.

Important to form an integrated mental representation of text:

Gather information about material and remember concepts in message.

People use subtle cues, mental models, long term memory and inferences to form integrated representation of discourse.
Inference
Draw on semantic memory to activate info that is beyond the written content.
Constructionist view
Draw inferences about the cause of event and relationship between events.
Huitema: RESEARCH:
four conditions.

- Inconsistent/near
- Inconsistent/far
- Consistent/near
- consistent/far

Findings support constructionist view: The person attempts to connect info stored in long term memory. Construct representation of text that matches internally even with irrelevant material.
Describe the factors that encourage people to draw inferences when they are reading
People who have large working memory capacity.
Excellent metacomprehension skills.
Expertise in area.
Higher level of inferences
Beyond level of paragraph.
Based on own preference for how we want the story to end.
Mental preference interfere with reading ability to judge how story turns out.
Metacomprehension
Thoughts of understanding.
Reading strategy important for older children. Monitor own understanding of material.
AI
Computer that is designed to demonstrate “humanlike congnitive processes”
Goal develop computer programs that will perform language comprehension task or conversational models of language.
FRUMP
Fast reading, understanding, memory program. SUmmarize newspaper articles. Top down approach by applying world knowledge based on 8 scripts
LSA
Latent semantic analysis: perform sophisticated language task. Designed to understand language. Grade essays. Assess semantic similarity between two discourses.
words can be produced per second in normal speech
two to three words can be produced per second.
Describe the important unresolved research question in word production research
Two camps:
Some believe you retrieve grammatical, semantic and phonological information at the same time. For example to word apple retrieves all info about all.

Or others :
Say we access the information independently.
Gestures or motor movements
aid in word retrieval process.
four stages of sentence production
1. Gist (overall meaning)
2: General structure of sentence without actual words.
3. Selection of specific words and grammatical form.
4. Articulate the sentence into phonemes.
Linearization problem
Difficulty placing words into a ordered sequence.
Prosody
Is defined as the melody of the intonation, rhythm, and emphasis. Help clarify ambiguous messages.
three types of speech errors known as slips-of-the-tongue
1 Sound error: Exchange sound of word nearby.
2. Morpheme error: Switching the meaning of a word with one nearby.
3. Word errors: actual words exchange.
Dell's explanation of speech errors
A person is more likely to create a real word than nonword. Nor does a person try and create words with unlikely letter sequences. Most errors occur if words fall under the same category. The reason is the unintended sound is highly activated.
Narrative
Type of discourse where the speaker communicates details about an actual or fictional event. The message is shared in time-sequence order, with a beginning middle and end. The speaker also sets a tone that is emotionally involving.
Pragmatics
Knowledge of social rules that underlie language.Focus on how the speaker successfully communicates message to audience.
lexical entrainment
the process of both speaker and audience adopting standard reference terms used to communicate.
common ground
the speaker and audience share similar backgrounds, schemas and experiences. This helps them to connect and communicate efficiently.
indirect request
A type of request where the actual desired action is not directly outlined but implied by asking something else.
directives
is an order or instruction communicated by the speaker and executed by the audience.
Generally the speaker proactively anticipates any obstacles that may arise that may hinder the response of the audience. The communicator also considers the pragmatics of the wording when delivering a directive.
Semantic memory
contains the accumulated general knowledge that we have collected throughout our lifetime about the world. Examples include: Knowing the capital of Canada is Ottawa and understanding photosynthesis. The way semantic memory is related to top-down processing can be explained by how humans use object recognition in order to interpret our surroundings. As we expect certain objects in locations and gr build on these expectations over time.
Categories
are collection of items (aka concepts) with similar attributes.
concept
is defined as the mental representation of an object that fits in a particular category. Our semantic memory allows us to group similar items together in the same way that concepts fit into particular categories.
Feature comparison model
Our memory organizes the information into systematic lists of similar concepts by using both:
a) the defining features which are the fundamental attributes required to identify the concept, and

b) additional descriptive features (aka characteristic features) that provide more details but not mandatory to fit into the category.
Sentence verification technique
demonstrates how a person draws upon their semantic knowledge about a concept in order to judge if the statement in question is true or false.

In research studies the reaction time is measured. We make faster sentence verification decisions when an item is a typical member of a category this is defined as the typicality effect.

For example: We are able to respond quickly that yes a robin is a bird. However the reaction time may be delayed If asked about a non-typical bird like: Avocet.

The feature comparison model can explain this because the typical concept “Robin” has many of the same features that fit the definition of the category “bird”. However critics of the features comparison model would argue that their are very few concepts can be categorized using similar specific defining features.
Prototype
Within a category the best example of a concept is called this.
prototype approach
states we organize and store newly learned concepts into categories by comparing the attributes with those of the prototype to determine if the item fits in a category.
prototypicality
Items in a category are ---------- not all equal; explains how members of a category vary in degree of similarities.
The graded structure
outlines the spectrum of how items fit in a category ranging from most identifiable (prototypical) to the nonprototypical items of the category.
Three characteristics set prototypes apart from nonprototypes:
1) People identify prototypes as the best example of a category often classify it as the category norm.

2) Studies show semantic priming improves a person’s ability to judge a prototype. Semantic priming is: Your response time increases if you are initially shown an item that has similar meaning.

3) Prototypes share attributes in a family resemblance category. DEF: NO single attribute is shared by all examples of a concept. However each example has at least one attribute in common with another example.
three different levels of categorization
Superordinate - broad. Furniture.
Basic - moderate. Chair
Subordinate - specific. Office chair.
Basic. Four basic characteristics
1. Preference used to ID objects. general enough info without being overly detailed.

2. More likely to produce semantic priming effect. Faster judgements made.

3.Basic categories are relatively homogeneous in terms.At the subordinate level (e.g. [dentist's chairs], [kitchen chairs] etc.) hardly any significant features can be added to that of the basic level; whereas at the superordinate level, these conceptual similarities are hard to pinpoint

4. Rosch (1978) defines the basic level as that level that has the highest degree of cue validity. Thus, a category like [animal] may have a prototypical member, but no cognitive visual representation. On the other hand, basic categories in [animal], i.e. [dog], [bird], [fish], are full of informational content and can easily be categorised in terms of Gestalt and semantic features.
advantages of the prototype approach
Account for ability to form concepts for group loosely related.
Applied to social relationship and inanimate objects.
disadvantages of the prototype approach
Prototype can shift if context changes.
Do store more specific info about individual concepts.
Doesn’t work in examining experts behaviour.
exemplar approach
Learn specific example that classify new stimuli by deciding how it compares to the examples in memory.
Explain how exemplar approach differs from the prototype approach and the feature comparison model.
Both: Draw conclusion about new object by comparing to member of category. IF enough similar attributes exist we conclude it fits in the category. The Exemplar approach is a mental representation of collection of numerous specific members of a category. Prototype deviates from this by stating it is the typical member of the category that we use as a point of reference.

People do not need to perform any kind of abstraction process in the exemplar approach. Creating a prototype of category would force us to omit the unique features that set the specific concept apart.

Flaw: semantic memory would be overloaded if we were to gather the numerous features needed to categorize items.
Better for simple categorization tasks where there are limited members in the category. Alternatively prototype approach allows for larger categories with a number of members. Handled in different hemispheres of the brain: left - prototype right - exemplar.
network model of semantic memory
Each concept is a node. Nodes are connected to each other via link.
From TEXT: It works... When name of concept mentioned, the node representing that concept is activated. The activation expands or spreads from that node to other nodes it is connected called spreading activation. .. Longer activation time if it has to spread to remote nodes in the network.
Typicality effect
Frequently used links have greater strength.
Declarative knowledge
our knowledge about facts and things.
ACT-R : Def: Automatic Components of Thought-Rational.
It attempts to explain how all of our cognitive processes work, it is not limited to how we organize our cognitive concepts.
proposition
... Larger base units of meaning than Anderson who only looks at single word concepts. This smallest unit of knowledge that can be judged by either true or false is defined as ------------
Anderson's model differ from Collins and Loftus's model
Anderson argues limited capacity of working memory restricts the spreading activation.
10 nodes can be activated at one time in working memory ... the links are simultaneously activated... each link in turn receives relatively little activation
parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach
Three characteristics are:
1) Cognitive processes are accomplished through parallel operations, not serial operations.
2) Network of concepts (or nodes) linked to many other concepts.The activation of theses networks explain many cognitive processes.
3) A concept is not one specific item, it is represented by the pattern of activity distributed throughout the network.

PDP allows us t understand how our own memory is abe to aid us finding information that is missing. One strategy is spontaneous generalization where a persons observations and background knowledge about an individual’s characteristics allow us to draw inferences about general information about an entire group. Alternatively we can fill information about a particular person comparing the information that is similar to person we already have information about. This is defined as default assignment.
four additional characteristics of the PDP approach
1. The links between nodes are weighted. Connection weights determine how much activation one unit can pass on to another unit.
2. Critical capacity can affect level of activation. It can either excite or inhibit another node.
3. Learning new information increases the strength of connection between relevant nodes.
4. Our brain sometimes only stores partial information in our memory. This ability is called graceful degradation.
current status of the PDP approach
Important shift in cognitive psychology in recent decades

Consist with neurological design of neurons in brain. May help to provide links between psychology and neuroscience.

Approach works better for tasks that operate simultaneously. For example: Pattern recognition, categorization, and memory search.

Some higher mental processes still require serial processing.

Explain cognitive disorders
Isn’t structured enough to handle complexities of semantic memory.
Heuristics:
General rules that are typically accurate. Example: Schema.
Script
Well structured sequence of events.
Ordering coffee at Starbucks.

is type of schema.
Schema
Generalized knowledge about situation, event or person.
Burning Man, Mother, Kitchen.

Broader than script.
schema consistent material research
Enhance memory for -------

Participants: Wait in one room and then lead through office. After asked to identify objects in room.

Results: People able to recall higher number of items that fit the office schema.
Didn’t recall items that did not fit in schema.
schema inconsistent material research
better recall for material that violates our expectations.
Able to remember material that is vivid or surprising.

Research: Davidson: Read variety of stories that fit schema. Able to recall items in story that didn’t fit schema.
Boundary extension
tendency to remember items outside of our line of view. For example we extend edges of a photo to fill in objects using a perceptual schema.

Relate to schema: Understanding a photo we use perceptual schema. This includes the mental representation of objects that are outside the edges of the photograph.
Abstraction
Is a memory process that stores the meaning of a message but not the exact words.
The gist or general meaning.
Generally consistent with the original schema.
Constructive model
people integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas. When trying to recall individual items people believe they have seen the altered sentence because we have combined the facts in our memory. Evidence to support this theory is: We use heuristics to meld ideas together.
Verbatim memory
is remembering the exact content word-for-word.
Pragmatic view
People pay attention to the aspect of message that aligns with their own recent goals. Evidence: Letter : Pay attention to words that are criticism or an insult. Rarely make mistakes to falsely recognize irrelevant sentences.
Recognize more sarcastic tone than bland sentence.
Inferences
Logical interpretation and conclusion that was not part of the original stimulus material. The act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true.
Make i----- based on stereotypes... kind of schema. Use own schema that allow us to make ------ about the world around us.
questions 14 and 15
still need to be done
imagery
Mental representation of visual stimuli. Image form in mind of object when it is not physically present.
Relies on top down processing.
Diff from perception that requires both top down and bottom up processing.
Uses include: Creative task, problem solving (spatial)
Most used is visual imagery.
What important: Behaviourist look at only observation therefore do not support imagery
Cognitive.
Analogue:
Representative that closely resembles object. Analogy between real object and mental image. Relative perception.
the deeper the groove, the higher the pitch.
Create mental image similar to real life object (stimuli)
Responses to physical similar to mental
Activate similar sturctures of cortex
Kossyln demonstrates each share similar subsystems. Ex shifting of attention
Imagery respmbles percetion.
Rotation.
Distance
Simple shape.
Visual - black and withe
Look close eyes... easily reconstruct.
Music
Propositional:
Abstract.
Language like.
Lines and angles.
Not natural language.
Not visual.
the sounds are represented as a sequence of binary digits that have no analogous relation to the sound they represent


Physical - central to imagery to not mental
Think we would .... large space to hold shape
Can’t re-examine mental image or reinterpret.
Compes shape.
Auditory. Smell taste. Use vinyl record and cd analogue
Binary code vis grooves on record.
Describe Shepard and Metzler's research on mental images and their major findings.
Rotation of images. 1600 pairs to see if the objects matched.
DV - reaction time not accuracy. Amount of rotation impacted reaction time. Supports analogue because rotating physical object would take longer too.
Propositional - if results were the same reaction time.
Summarize Kosslyn's classic research on distances in mental images and scanning times.
Distance between two points in mental image and response time.
Long time between 2 points far apart. Linear relationship between distance.
Time to scan between 2 points. Support analogue.
It would take longer to scan two objects that are physically further apart.
Experiment expectancy
Influence outcome. The experimenter’s expectancies of the outcome of the experiment influence the results. The Hypothesis influences how people react. Type of demand characteristic.
Paivio's research using mental clocks and the angles formed by the two clock hands.
Mental Clocks.
Shape.
People make judgment about angle formed by two hands of clock take longer if angle of two different times close together. Rather than different. Support analogue.
research findings on whether visual images interfere with visual perception
Visual perception/motor movement interference motor imagery.

Using same sense to create image and perception interfer.

Segal Fusella - FOund same

Motor imagery_ same thing if doing physical motion. Hard to create image of physical motion.

Nexter - rotate joystick at steady pass.
Made decision quicker if physical rotation in same direction mental image needed to be rotated.

Interference effects can be found in motor, visual, and auditory imagery.
Reed's (1974) study on reinterpreting mental images
Ambiguous object.
Decide if pattern was part of shape. People only correct 14% of time. SUpport propositional - store description.
Chambers and Reisbergs's (1985) study of ambiguous figures.
re-interpretation of ambiguous Ex.
Duck/Rabbit could draw but not visually see other image.
does complexity affect the choice of representational code?
simple image - analogue
complex object - propositional code

Limited capacity for strong complex image in memory.

Jigsaw puzzle. Shows we use both for imagery
Imagery and other aspects of visual perception.
Masking stimuli allow you to see visual target more accurately. Mental image produce same masking effect.
Demand characteristics
Anything that might reveal the hypothesis to the participants. Results as analogue may be traced to demand characteristics. Participants guess results and therefore convey outcome. Masking stimuli not known to general population therefore is not demand characteristic in experiment.

Acuity - similar in mental image and perception.
visual perception
How they work at biological level is not the same. Mental imagery is purely top down processing while perception relies on the rods and cones of the retina (not activated during visual imagery). but same part of brain is activated.
Lesion research show people who cannot make out visual perception cannot see mental image.
Task activate visual cortex.
MRI studies show task to create simple object same brain activity.
Primary visual cortex active when examine features of a letter - doesn’t process large material. Parietal lobe active to change structure.
Avoids demand characteristics because impossible to =voluntarilly activated part of brain.
mental rotation
PRIMARY CORTEX ACTIVE.
PET SCAN
People who only watched did not activate primary motor cortex.
Type of instruction can activate primary cortex. “rotate object” “see yourself... move to observe in different area.
DIff area left temporal lobe.
Did not activate primary cortex
Cognitive maps
rely on mental images. Def: Mental representation of environment . Both analogue and propositional coding.
Spatial cognition
our thoughts about spatial issues.Incl: cognitive maps.
Also includes memory of objects and area around us. And our ability to keep track of the objects in our spatial array.
three factors that influence estimates of distance based on mental maps.
a) Number of intervening cities. Assume larger between two cities if there are cities in between them.

b) semantic categories - assume like minded businesses near each other. Distance closer.

c) Landmark vs. nonlandmark distance. - THink distance shorter to landmark.
ngles and curves in real world maps
Findings: tendancy to regulate angle. Significantly biased to 90 degree.
90 degree angle heuristic
tendency to assume angle 90 degree in cognitive map than what it is in reality.
symmetry herutistic
remember figures more symmetrical than they are in reality. EX. Curve in river.
How do people construct mental representations through the use of verbal descriptions?
Verbal descriptions of 10 different scenes
Easily 5 objects.
above, below, in front of and behind.
Asked to turn and face object.
Interested in response time.
Spatial Framework
1.above/below- easy and quicker.
Associated with the notion of gravity.

Easy to tell feet and head apart.

2. front/back - moderate
Usually interact with objects in front.

-Asymmetry plays role. body has different parts in front and back.

3. left/right - slowest.
Minor pref. but usually receive objects equally on left and right.

-Body symmetrical ... therefore require additional processing time. Based on long term intellectual body.