Cognitive Neurosceience- Psych 108: Final Exam

Front 1

Adult ADHD
• Persistence from childhood:_____ of children persist

Back 1

5 to 66%

Front 2

Prevalence:

Back 2

3 to 5%

Front 3

• Similarity to childhood profile:

Back 3

demographic,
psychosocial, psychiatric and cognitive features

Front 4

what kind of genes you have

Back 4

• Genotype:

Front 5

Variants of genes are known as

Back 5

alleles

Front 6

The dopamine receptor gene can have

Back 6

different forms (alleles)

Front 7

• Having a diff allele could lead to more or less effect of

Back 7

dopamine release
on the postsynaptic cell

Front 8

Which particular dopamine receptors you have is your

Back 8

phenotype

Front 9

your body type given your genes
- Dopamine receptor type
- Dopamine transporter type
- Eye color
- Height
- Cortical thickness
- Cortical gyral folding patter

Back 9

phenotype

Front 10

In much of medicine, you can measure the phenotype

Back 10

directly

Front 11

The problem for most psychiatric conditions such as
ADHD is there’s

Back 11

no direct probe

Front 12

Instead, we have _______ (which are subjectively
observed and probably not closely related to the
phenotype, I.e. brain systems)

Back 12

symptoms

Front 13

How you perform on various psychological (cognitive)
tests will show variation and is a kind of

Back 13

phenotype

Front 14

• This variation is partly related to how you are made up
(your genes and your brain system) - at least better than
symptoms are
• So we can use ______as the next best
thing

Back 14

cognitive phenotypes

Front 15

• _______ does seem changed in ADHD

Back 15

Executive Function

Front 16

-executive function
-State regulation:
arousal/activation
-reward processing
-time perception

Back 16

Candidate cognitive phenotypes for ADHD

Front 17

Executive Function “Impairments” in
ADHD

Back 17

Repsonse prevention stop task

Front 18

For each subject, one can measure the speed
of inhibition:

Back 18

Stop Signal Reaction Time
SSRT

Front 19

Measuring the speed of inhibition:

Back 19

SSRT

Front 20

The speed of inhibition
(SSRT) could be a nice
cognitive phenotype
because it:
a) relates to the level of
impulsivity
b) relates nicely to the
brain
Syndrome
Symptoms
Cognitive Phenotypes
Genes
Proteins
Neural System Models
Cellular System Models &
Signalling Pathways
Attention Deficit/
Hyperactivity Disorder
Impulsive Symptoms
“blurts out answers”, “difficulty taking
turn”, “talks excessively”
Level 7
Level 6
Level 5
Level 1
Level 2
Level 4
Level 3
Response Inhibition
(Stop Task)

Back 20

Stopping/impulsivity correlation

Front 21

___, but not ___, frontal damage
impairs SSRT

Back 21

Right
left

Front 22

memory
maintenance/monitoring

Back 22

DLFPC

Front 23

conflict monitoring

Back 23

Dorsomedial

Front 24

decision-making

Back 24

Orbital (ventromedial)

Front 25

inhibition

Back 25

Ventrolateral

Front 26

higher-level goals

Back 26

Anterior frontal

Front 27

• Structural MRI can
measure cortical
density/thickness in each
subject
• Compare group of
adolescents with ADHD
diagnosis vs group of age
and IQ-matched controls
• Do t-test at each voxel to
find significant differences

Back 27

Right frontal density is different in
ADHD vs controls

Front 28

Gray matter
ADHD __ controls

Back 28

<

Front 29

Right frontal density is

Back 29

different
unaffected siblings

Front 30

Gray matter
Unaffect. Sibs ___ controls

Back 30

<

Front 31

• A structural MRI study compared
children with ADHD diagnosis, their
siblings with no ADHD diagnosis
and age and IQ-matched controls
• Right frontal cortical
density/thickness reduced in
unaffected siblings vs controls
• ADHD is heritable? Effect in
families even with no manifest
syndrome?

Back 31

Right frontal density is different in
unaffected siblings

Front 32

• Functional MRI done for stop
signal test in kids with ADHD vs
controls
• fMRI signal computed at all voxels
for controls and for ADHD groups
• Independent samples t-test
performed at each voxel

Back 32

Right frontal hypofunction in ADHD

Front 33

Dopamine (and other neurotransmitters)
released from

Back 33

brainstem and midbrain

Front 34

Neurotransmission allows distant and diverse brain
regions to be modulated by global levels of

Back 34

arousal,
vigilance and attention

Front 35

relates to pleasure, motivation, arousal … it
may increase the signal-to-noise processing of cortical
networks

Back 35

Dopamine

Front 36

Dopamine levels (and those of other neurotransmitter
systems) can be altered...

Back 36

pharmacologically

Front 37

SSRT in ADHD...

Back 37

speeded (improved) by Ritalin

Front 38

• Ritalin (Methylphenidate)
affects

Back 38

dopamine,
noradrenaline, serotonin,
etc.
Used clinically for treating
ADHD

Front 39

The main effect in ADHD
may be via

Back 39

dopamine and
noradrenaline

Front 40

• Also speeds ___in
ADHD

Back 40

SSRT

Front 41

• The dopamine receptor is a

Back 41

protein

Front 42

• There are dopamine transporters too
• And enzymes that breakdown

Back 42

dopamine

Front 43

Twin studies can be used to
estimate ___in ADHD

Back 43

heritability

Front 44

Gene Association Studies
• There is some evidence that the type of
allele people have for the _______
predicts whether or not they have a
diagnosis of ADHD

Back 44

DRD4 gene

Front 45

Historical ___ of emotion research in cognitive
psychology

Back 45

neglect

Front 46

Emotions are very important for __________ - so emotion
research often goes together with _______

Back 46

sociality
social psychology

Front 47

Hence ___research has been key

Back 47

face

Front 48

Based on ethnographic
research, ____
concluded there are ___ basic
types

Back 48

Paul Ekman
six

Front 49

types of emotion

Back 49

– Happy, sad, disgust, anger,
fear and surprise

Front 50

Ekman:

Back 50

face muscle classification
and basic types of emotions

Front 51

There are many ______of
emotion, no true one

Back 51

typologies

Front 52

Emotions can alternatively be
classified based on degree of
__or ______ or___

Back 52

arousal or valence Or intensity

Front 53

Complex emotions may differ
from the simple ones you can
_____on a face

Back 53

read

Front 54

May involve
situation: e.g. embarassment

Back 54

beliefs/desires,
representing another person’s
thoughts, being aware of cultural

Front 55

“Our natural way of thinking about
these standard emotions is that
the mental perception of some
fact excites the mental affection
called the emotion, and that this
latter state of mind gives rise to
the bodily expression …
… My thesis on the contrary is that
the bodily changes follow directly
the PERCEPTION of the exciting
fact, and that our feeling of the
same changes as they occur IS
the emotion” [William James]
i.e. when you feel your body
changing THEN you experience
the emotion

Back 55

James-Lange theory

Front 56

Problems with the James-Lange
theory

Back 56

• Artificial production of visceral
changes produces no emotion
• Emotions still visible in patients
who lack some internal organs
• Deaffarented human and nonhuman
animals still show
emotions
• Visceral reactions are slow -
cannot explain instantaneous
character of, e.g. fear
• So …. It’s not entirely plausible
that the body change precedes
the emotion
• But James-Lange are right that
body states are an important part
of what constitutes emotion …

Front 57

Enter the limbic circuit (Papez)

Back 57

• Consists of cingulate,
hypothalamus, thalamus, basal
ganglia, hippocampus …. etc.
• Comes from a more primitive
type of cortex (different from
neocortex, i.e. cerebral
hemispheres)
• Phylogenetically older structures
• Common in nonmammalian
species (e.g reptiles or
amphibians)

Front 58

Emotions and the body response

Back 58

• Emotions such as fear are present even in phylogenetically
primitive species
• “Emotional” processing leads to a widespread, full body, stress
response via the endocrine system

Front 59

The Papez Circuit: Cingulate

Back 59

• Cingulate gets output from anterior thalamus
• Major interface between limbic, motor and
cognitive areas
• Plays important role in cognitive control
(including over emotion?)

Front 60

major sensory input to brain (sound, vision, touch …)

Back 60

Thalamus:

Front 61

relay between nervous and endocrine systems

Back 61

Hypothalamus:

Front 62

hormonal system (secreted into bloodstream)

Back 62

Endocrine:

Front 63

Papez circuit posits “internal circuits”

Back 63

• Papez thought these regions work
together to make up the “emotional
brain”
• Big development in emotion research
because posits an internal circuit:
- i.e. not just a circuit between
sensory and motor systems
- but a circuit from sensory to
internal milieu (memory, body
state, endocrine, hormones) then
to motor system
- so “feelings” can influence the
decision, and body state is
connected with this over time - see
Somatic Marker Hypothesis

Front 64

Prefrontal cortex (e.g. OFC) is intimately wired up with the

Back 64

limbic (emotion processing) areas of the brain -

Front 65

Thus the “emotional” input enters into the

Back 65

deliberative process

Front 66

Problems with the Papez circuit

Back 66

• Regions of the system, such as
hippocampus, not specific for
emotion (as we have seen)
• Some emotions involve different
(and specific) circuitry, e.g.
disgust
• Still, the Papez circuit implicated
parts of the limbic system in
emotion research - which is
important
• Modern theories of emotion, e.g.
that of LeDoux, focus on more
specific circuitry
Next time …. the amygdala

Front 67

Emotions, stress and the body

Back 67

• Emotions such as fear are present even in phylogenetically
primitive species
• “Emotional” processing leads to a widespread, full body, stress
response via the endocrine system

Front 68

Problems with the James-Lange
theory

Back 68

• Artificial production of visceral changes produces no emotion
• Emotions still visible in patients who lack some internal organs
• Deaffarented human and non-human animals still show emotions
• Visceral reactions are slow - cannot explain instantaneous character
of, e.g. fear
• So …. It’s not entirely plausible that the body change precedes the
emotion
• But body-states/arousal are still an important part of emotion ….

Front 69

directs sensory info to
streams of “thinking” and “feeling”

Back 69

Thalamus:

Front 70

representations of body state

Back 70

Sensory cortex:

Front 71

• Body representations in:

Back 71

- Primary somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) - SI
- Insular cortex - SII

Front 72

Papez circuit includes

Back 72

limbic system

Front 73

Papez circuit includes limbic system

Back 73

• Consists of cingulate,
hypothalamus, thalamus,
hippocampus …. etc.
• Comes from a more primitive
type of cortex (different from
neocortex, i.e. cerebral
hemispheres)
• Phylogenetically older structures
• Common in nonmammalian
species (e.g reptiles or
amphibians)
The hypothalamus is an input to the
endocrine and autonomic systems
• The hypothalamus is a relay between
the nervous and endocrine systems
• The endocrine system constitutes
hormones such as oxytocin, adrenaline
and progesterone which are released
into bloodstream
• The hypothalamus thus regulates
body temperature, hunger and thirst
• It also outputs to the autonomic
nervous system

Front 74

The hypothalamus is an input to the

Back 74

endocrine and autonomic systems

Front 75

• The hypothalamus is a relay between
the nervous and endocrine systems
• The endocrine system constitutes
hormones such as oxytocin, adrenaline
and progesterone which are released
into bloodstream
• The hypothalamus thus regulates
body temperature, hunger and thirst
• It also outputs to the autonomic
nervous system

Back 75

The hypothalamus is an input to the
endocrine and autonomic systems

Front 76

The hypothalamus is an input to the

Back 76

endocrine and autonomic systems

Front 77

Autonomic nervous system

Back 77

• Hypothalamic output
to ANS quickly
controls heart rate,
sweating etc via
sympathetic branch
• Neurons originating
in the brain release
neurotransmitters
(e.g. noradrenaline)
onto receptors in
multiple body organs
• These can
“excite” or “quiet”
body responses

Front 78

• Papez thought these regions work
together to make up the “emotional
brain”
• Emotional experiences are supposed
to happen when cingulate cortex
integrates the “stream of thought” and
the “stream of feeling”; i.e. input from
sensory cortex and hypothalamus
• Outputs from cingulate cortex to
hippocampus and then hypothalamus
allow thoughts in the cerebral cortex to
control emotional/body responses
• So “feelings” or “memories of
feelings” (see Somatic Marker
Hypothesis) can influence decisions
and actions

Back 78

Papez circuit is an internal loop

Front 79

Papez circuit lacks

Back 79

specificity

Front 80

• Regions of the system, such as hippocampus, not specific for

Back 80

emotion

Front 81

Modern theories of emotion focus on more specific circuitry, in particular
the ___- important for fear and threat in particular

Back 81

amygdala

Front 82

Other emotions also involve different (and specific) circuitry, e.g. disgust
(represented in insula cortex)
• Papez circuit has limited/schematic role for limbic system - which is in
reality much more

Back 82

complex

Front 83

Overall, the Papez circuit helped emotion research by introducing

Back 83

neurobiological detail and implicating the limbic system in emotion
research - which is important. Also reinforces James-Lange notion of the
importance of body state - we’ll see more of this next lecture

Front 84

The Amygdala is part of the

Back 84

MTL

Front 85

Amygdala damage specifically
affects

Back 85

fear and anger

Front 86

• Patient DR could recognize _____, but not the emotion (especially
not fear)
• This also applied in the vocal domain: so not ____ specific, but
really about emotion

Back 86

faces
modality

Front 87

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

Back 87

• Emotional Blunting: Subjects displays flat affect and may not respond
appropriately to stimuli. Following bilateral amygdala lesions,
previously fierce monkeys will approach fear-inducing stimuli with no
display of anger or fear.
• Hyperphagia: Patients with Kluver-Bucy often suffer from extreme
weight gain without a strictly monitored diet. This is likely for the
purpose of oral stimulation or exploration and not indicative of a
satiety disorder. There is a strong tendency for those with Kluver-Bucy
to compulsively place inedible objects in their mouths.
• Inappropriate Sexual Behavior: Human subjects with Kluver-Bucy may
fail to publicly observe social sexual morays and there may be an
increase in their sexual activity. Monkeys with bilateral amygdala
lesions demonstrate atypical sex behaviors, mounting inanimate
objects and members of the same sex.
• Visual Agnosia: Subjects with Kluver-Bucy suffer from "psychic
blindness," i. e. an inability to visually recognize some objects. Oral
compulsions may provide an alternate means of object identification
• Much of this could be explained by objects losing their learned
emotional value (a function of the amygdala)
• But wider damage to temporal lobe produces visual agnosia

Front 88

Subjects displays flat affect and may not respond
appropriately to stimuli. Following bilateral amygdala lesions,
previously fierce monkeys will approach fear-inducing stimuli with no
display of anger or fear.

Back 88

Emotional Blunting:

Front 89

Patients with Kluver-Bucy often suffer from extreme
weight gain without a strictly monitored diet. This is likely for the
purpose of oral stimulation or exploration and not indicative of a
satiety disorder. There is a strong tendency for those with Kluver-Bucy
to compulsively place inedible objects in their mouths.

Back 89

Hyperphagia:

Front 90

Human subjects with Kluver-Bucy may
fail to publicly observe social sexual morays and there may be an
increase in their sexual activity. Monkeys with bilateral amygdala
lesions demonstrate atypical sex behaviors, mounting inanimate
objects and members of the same sex.

Back 90

Inappropriate Sexual Behavior:

Front 91

Subjects with Kluver-Bucy suffer from "psychic
blindness," i. e. an inability to visually recognize some objects. Oral
compulsions may provide an alternate means of object identification

Back 91

Visual Agnosia:

Front 92

• Much of this could be explained by objects losing their learned____
• But wider damage to temporal lobe produces visual ______

Back 92

emotional value (a function of the amygdala)
agnosia

Front 93

The amygdala plays a special role in

Back 93

threat detection

Front 94

• Threat detection is
_____important

Back 94

evolutionarily

Front 95

• Threats can be detected very
fast (even subliminally) via the
_____ but slower
responses also occur via the
_____

Back 95

“low road”,
“high road”

Front 96

“Low road” amygdala activation
in blindsight patient

Back 96

• Patient has damage to left V1; hence “blind” in right visual field
• Still, threatening stimuli presented in that field can lead to an
amygdala response

Front 97

• Facial expressions of
disgust activate ________ a gustatory
somatosensory region

Back 97

insula cortex -

Front 98

• May map body states
to “feelings” of

Back 98

selfawareness
and urges

Front 99

• Some patients with
_________ are
impaired at recognizing
sadness

Back 99

amygdala damage

Front 100

• Happiness seems
more ________
neurally

Back 100

distributed

Front 101

___damage removes urge to
smoke

Back 101

Insula

Front 102

James-Lange theory not strictly

Back 102

correct

Front 103

• Important clue of relation between emotion and body state came from
Papez circuit

Back 103

- introduces limbic system
- spells out endocrine basis of stress response

Front 104

• Papez circuit is not specific enough about

Back 104

emotion circuitry

Front 105

There is specialized emotion circuitry in the brain:

Back 105

e.g. amygdala

Front 106

• Emotion can be processed with and without

Back 106

awareness

Front 107

• Snakes, spiders, thunder, etc.
are likely to be

Back 107

“hard-wired” fear
responses in the brain, as part
of our evolutionary history

Front 108

But other objects/sounds/smells can
come to elicit emotions such as fear,
through ___________

Back 108

classical conditioning

Front 109

• Most experiments have used rodents, but
the psychological and neural mechanisms
are

Back 109

highly conserved across species

Front 110

Conditioned fear engages

Back 110

HPA and
Amydala

Front 111

• After just a few pairings the tone alone becomes the ____, and can
elicit the autonomic/endocrine and behavioral response of fear

Back 111

CS

Front 112

Emotional situations involve complex
interactions between neurohormonal
systems that are co-ordinated by the______

Back 112

HPA axis

Front 113

• E.g. a stressful stimulus is detected
by brain, causing adrenaline to be
released in the periphery which then
stimulates the vagal nerve (coming up
spinal cord) which projects to the
amydala
• Blocking this incoming pathway..

Back 113

blocks the memory-enhancing effects
of adrenaline

Front 114

• This picture is roughly
consistent with Papez circuit
(engaging thalamus,
hypothalamus and limbic areas)
• But ….

Back 114

more detailed and accurate
in light of modern findings

Front 115

• After just a few pairings the

Back 115

tone alone becomes the CS, and can
elicit the autonomic/endocrine and behavioral response of fear

Front 116

In vitro signsl of neurophysiological
consolidation:

Back 116

Long-term Potentiation

Front 117

• We saw that when an input
nerve cell was stimulated
electrically with a brief highfrequency
tetanus (1 sec, 100
Hz), there was an increase in
EPSP lasting hours
• This is an in vitro experiment
• This mechanism of LTP likely
underlies

Back 117

fear memory
formation in the amygdala too
• And emotional aspects of a
stimulus also faciliate this
process in the wider MTL … as
we will see

Front 118

Amydala neurons ______
during conditioning
tone
• Once the tone has become the
CS there is a corresponding
increase in firing rate of amydala
cells to tone alone

Back 118

increase firing rate

Front 119

• Postsynaptic potentials lead, within seconds, minutes and
hours to

Back 119

changes to the synapse
• Gene transcription produces new proteins which add cell
structure in form of synaptic buttons
• This is the cellular basis of learning in amydala and
hippocampus

Front 120

In humans …..
• Meta-analysis of multiple
fMRI studies
• Reveals activation of
___________during
conditioned fear acquisition
• These activations
represent brain responses
to conditioned stimulus
• Consistent with picture
from rodents and broadly
with the Papez circuit

Back 120

thalamo-amygdalocingulate
network

Front 121

How could fear be controlled?

Back 121

• VMPFC (ventromedial
prefrontal cortex) has inhibitory
projections (GABAergic) onto
amygdala
• Fear is generated in
amygdala to conditioned tone,
and expressed behaviorally
• Could VMPFC suppress the
fear response via the top-down
projection?

Front 122

activates when fear
memory is extinguished

Back 122

VMPFC

Front 123

• In humans, this could be one form of

Back 123

executive function!

Front 124

Dissociable contributions of amygdala
and hippocampus for

Back 124

emotional memory

Front 125

• Reasons exist to think
that ________
play different roles in
emotional memory than
the amydala

Back 125

hippocampus (and
parahippocampal areas)

Front 126

Dissociable contributions of amygdala
and MTL to conditioned fear learning

Back 126

• Controls and patients SM and
WC undergo conditioning with
visual as well as auditory stimuli
• Skin conductance response
(SCR) measured during
conditioning
• WC (hippocampal damage)
shows normal SCR, WC (amydala
damage) shows abnormal SCR
• By contrast, WC has intact
declarative memory of the testing
episode while SM does not
• Double dissociation!

Front 127

Involves “high-road” or slower pathway

• A form of long-term memory
consolidation, like semantic or
episodic memory
• Except now the amydala/HPA is
implicated …

Back 127

• Retina -> thalamus -> V1,V2,V3,etc -
> lateral temporal lobe ->
amygdala/HPA -> medial temporal
lobe -> cortical networks

Front 128

How memories may be made:
pathways into and out of the MTL

Back 128

• For example, for information in parietal (P)
and temporal (TE) areas, which are
influenced by the frontal cortex (FC), to
develop into stable long-term memory:
- neural activity must occur at the time of
learning along projections from these
areas to the MTL
- first to parahipp, perirhinal cortex and
entorhinal cortex
- then through several states of
hippocampus and back to Parietal and
Temporal areas
Emotional memories also formed via
this route - buy amydala “colors” them

Front 129

Role of parahippocampal areas in encoding
new information confirmed with fMRI

Back 129

• We saw before:
• Scan people while they
learn new material (e.g.
complex color
photographs)
• Activation at time of
scanning predicts what is
subsequently
remembered - the Dm
effect

Front 130

Encoding emotional memories

Back 130

• Subsequent memory (Dm)
effects assessed for:
-high arousal, negative
valence
-Low arousal, negative
valence (valence only)
- neutral
• Dm effect significant in
amydala for arousal condition
• Dm effect significant for all
conditions in hippocampus
• Dm effect greater in anterior
hippocampus for arousal
condition - consistent with
greater connectivity between
amydala and anterior
hippocampus

Front 131

Correlated changes in amygdala and
hippocampal/entorhinal areas during
encoding of emotional material

Back 131

• Measure brain signals for items that are subsequently remembered vs.
subsequently forgotten in arousal and neutral conditions
• Arousal-based Dm effects are correlated across individuals while neutral
effects are not
• Suggests that amydala works with other MTL areas for emotional memory

Front 132

Conditioned fear learning via

Back 132

thalamus/amygdala/HPA axis

Front 133

Synaptic changes occur in

Back 133

amydala

Front 134

Conditioned fear can be
extinguished via

Back 134

inhibitory inputs
from prefrontal cortex to amydala

Front 135

• Hippocampus/parahippocampus is
sensitive to the _______aspects
of emotional memories

Back 135

declarative

Front 136

• The amydala works together with
the _______(especially
anterior part) to form declarative
memories - arousal thus strongly
“colors” the memory, making it an
enduring one.

Back 136

hippocampus

Front 137

Role of body states 1: James-Lange

Back 137

• We saw that James-
Lange had it wrong that
body state must precede
feeling

Front 138

Role of body states 2 - Papez

Back 138

• Papez circuit is more
nuanced - emotion
(feeling) is a complex
interaction of cognitive
and body states
• But a bit vague …

Front 139

Role of body states 3 - HPA axis and
conditioned fear learning

Back 139

• Once the tone has become the CS there is a
corresponding increase in firing rate of amydala
cells to tone alone
• Changes to behavior and body state constitute
the learning and accompany the CS until
extinguished
• How might this work?

Front 140

• E.g. a stressful stimulus is detected by the
brain ->

Back 140

sensory periphery - thalamus -
amydala

Front 141

• causes adrenaline to be released in the
periphery (i.e. body) which then stimulates
the ________ (coming up spinal cord)
which projects back to the amydala

Back 141

vagal nerve

Front 142

Blocking this ______blocks the
memory-enhancing effects of adrenaline

Back 142

incoming pathway

Front 143

e.g. it has been shown that blocking this
incoming body pathway prevents

Back 143

conditioned fear acquisition

Front 144

So body states are an important part of
______ - even if they probably do
not precede the experience (feeling)

Back 144

emotion learning

Front 145

Role of body states 4 - HPA axis and
declarative memory formation

Back 145

• Amydala-hippocampal interaction also
important for laying down declarative
(emotional) memories
• Likely that amygdala-HPA axis participates,
as before, but the consolidation is in the
hippocampus (binding the episode) rather
than amygdala only
• Suggests that “body state” could
become represented in the brain - I.e. you
don’t need to have actual body changes
every time you recall an emotional episode -
the body state is part of your cognition
• This is the Somatic Marker Hypothesis

Front 146

Could explain Phineas Gage’s problem

Back 146

Selective damage to orbital frontal
cortex left him with profound
problems with decision-making,
especially involving risk and social
situations
• But remainder of his cognition,
memory etc. intact

Front 147

How skin conductance is used to evaluate
the somatic marker hypothesis

Back 147

• Some patients with brain
damage show less (or no) Skin
Conductance Response to
emotional stimuli
• This suggests that the
damaged region can’t integrate
the “body signals” or “body
memories”

Front 148

Participants presented with 4
virtual decks of cards on
computer screen. They are told
that each time they choose a
card they will win some game
money. Every so often,
however, choosing a card
causes them to lose some
money. The goal of the game
is to win as much money as
possible. Every card drawn will
earn the participant a reward
($100 for Decks A and B; $50
for Decks C and D).
Occasionally, a card will also
have a penalty (A and B have a
total penalty of $1250 for every
ten cards; C and D have a total
penalty of $250 for every ten
cards).
Thus, A and B are "bad decks", and C
and D are "good decks", because Decks
A or B will lead to losses over the long run,
and Decks C or D will lead to gains. Deck
A differs from B and Deck C differs from D
in the number of trials over which the
losses are distributed: A and C have five
smaller loss cards for every ten cards; B
and D have one larger loss card for every
ten cards.

Back 148

The Iowa Gambling task - Bechara et al

Front 149

• Healthy participants sample cards from
each deck, and after about 40 or 50
selections stick to good decks.
• Patients with___
dysfunction continue to _________with the
bad decks sometimes even though they know
that they are losing money overall.
• Concurrent measurement of ___shows that healthy
participants show a "stress" reaction to
hovering over the bad decks after only 10
trials, long before conscious sensation that
the decks are bad.
• Patients with OFC dysfunction don!t seem
to develop this physiological reaction to
impending punishment.
• Bechara and his colleagues explain this in
terms of the somatic marker hypothesis

Back 149

orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
perseverate
skin conductance response

Front 150

Evaluating the Iowa Gambling Task

Back 150

• The IGT and the findings by Bechara et al, generated an
enormous amount of interest
• Yet the IGT has been criticized on various grounds:
- is people!s knowledge of the good and bad decks really
unconscious?
- if not, the difference between patients and controls may
have to do with access to this knowledge rather than
somatic markers
- the SCR results have not always been replicated

Front 151

• Emotional responses are acquired/learned along
with ___

Back 151

body state changes

Front 152

• Body state changes come to be represented in the

Back 152

brain itself

Front 153

• Memory of emotion, or emotion expression or
experiencing emotion can thus operate

Back 153

independently of the body

Front 154

states/processes that prepare the orgamism for certain behaviours particularly those with survival value

Back 154

emotion

Front 155

situations in which a particular emotion occurs frequently or continuously

Back 155

mood

Front 156

part of the limbic system; implicated in detecting fearful stimuli

Back 156

amygdala

Front 157

in monkeys after bilateral amygdala and temporal lesions, an unfusual tameness and emotional blunting, a tendency to examine objects with the mouth and dietary changes

Back 157

kluver- bucy syndrome

Front 158

a pathological fear of certain stimuli that is out of proportion to the acutal threat posed

Back 158

phobia

Front 159

a region of cortex buried beneath the temporal lobes; contains secondary somatosensory regions involved in body perception and the primary gustatory cortex; responds to disgust

Back 159

insula

Front 160

a stimulus that increases or decreases a particular pattern of behavior

Back 160

reinforcer

Front 161

the emotional response of another person may lead to avoidance or interaction with previously neutral stimulus

Back 161

social referencing

Front 162

a highly durable avoidance of food that has previusly been associated with sickness

Back 162

conditioned taste aversion

Front 163

wrinkles around eyes associated with a sincere smile

Back 163

duchenne lines

Front 164

changes in electrical conductivity on a person's skin, triggered by certain stimuli (eg emotional or familar stimuli)

Back 164

skin conductiance response (SCR)

Front 165

the self perception of bodily changes produces emotional experience

Back 165

james lange theory

Front 166

links btw previous situations stored throughout the cortex and the feeling of those situations stored in regions of the brain dedicated to emotion an the representaiton of the body

Back 166

somatic markers

Front 167

the ability to stop responding to previously rewarded stimulus that is no longer rewarded

Back 167

reveral learning

Front 168

people report that thier aquaintances have been replaced by body doubles

Back 168

capgras syndrome

Front 169

a genetic disorder in which there is whole or partial deletion of one X chromosome

Back 169

turner's syndrome

Front 170

the ability to appreciate others' points of view and share their expereinces

Back 170

empathy

Front 171

the theory that perceiving the actions and emotional expressions of others uses the same neural and cognitive resources that are used for producing actions and emtional expressions in oneself

Back 171

simulation theory

Front 172

ability to represent the metnal states of others

Back 172

theory of mind

Front 173

a belief that differs from one's own belief and that differs from the true state of the world

Back 173

false belief

Front 174

a situation in which outward behavior deliberately contradicts inner knowledge and beliefs

Back 174

deception

Front 175

the presence of markedly abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication and a markedly resricted reperatorire of activities and interests

Back 175

autism

Front 176

autism with no significant delay in early language and cognitive development

Back 176

aspergers syndrome

Front 177

irresponsible and unreliable behavior that is not personally advantageous; an inablity to form lasting commitments or relationships, egocentric thinking, marked degree of impulsivity

Back 177

sociopathy