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88 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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ontogenetic
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age-related, lifetime change
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phylogenetic
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historical change, evolutionary
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structure
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mental construct or ability (language faculty)
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function
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actions related to a structure; observable beh (speech, search for a hidden object), or unobservable (retrieval of def from memory). maintains structure, and is necessary for proper dev to occur.
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bidirectional relation of structure and function
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activity of structure itself and stimulation in environment can contribute to changes in function (how the structure operates).
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epistemiology
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the study of how we know what we know, what it means to know things
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genetic epistemiology
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Piaget- the idea that there are changes in the way in which we acquire knowledge, or even what it means to know something. for structures to change, they must be active- and for dev to occur. "structure of experience" study its causes, history, and origins. conceptions of reality are in flux.
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interpreting behavior (2 questions)
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1. What did the child do? "observations" 2. What did this doing mean? "interpretations" Even our observations are interpretive, based on our "theoretical" orientation- what we believe and what we expect to find
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Nativism
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cognitive abilities are Innate (biology)
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Empiricism
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cognition arises as a result of experience (environment) and that biology (nature) provides only learning mechanisms.
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Regolin & Vallortigara (1995) Chicks
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innate knowledge of complete figure during occlusion. triangle. Chicks imprint (form attachment) to first thing they see after birth; pick actual triangle (not bar and messed up triangle)
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Elman, Bates, Johnson, et al (1996) Innateness
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Not so innate: Different types of constraints. 1. representational 2. chronotropic 3. architectural: behaviors arise through the interaction of constraints at several of these levels
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Representational Constraints
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knowledge (representation) is hard-wired: we are born with some basic ideas ab the nature of objects, math, and grammar. only minimal experience is required to make sense of the world.
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Architectural Constraints
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Organization of the brain at birth. limitations on the type and manner in which info can be processed by the brain, not bc brain comes equipped w innate knowledge (representations) but certain neurons/areas of brain can only process certain types of info
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Chronotropic Constraints
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limitations on developmental timing of events: some areas of brain most receptive to certain types of experiences (learning) critical/sensitive periods
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Richard Lerner (1991)
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Developmental Systems Approach; all parts of the organism (genes hormones, organs, etc) and the whole organism itself interact dynamically with the context with which the organism is embedded. mult levels of organism and mult levels of context/enviro
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Quantitative vs qualitative
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differences/change:type or kind, then degree. or difference in strategy, difference in frequency
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continuity vs discontinuity
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gradual or linear change or differences (phonemes) lose ability to disc them, processing speed, memory? ; abrupt changes or differences- stage theories,
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homogeneity vs heterogeneity
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uniform and similar across context and individual (stage) personality; variability (within individual, across context/domain) indicative of learning. homo initial, hetero how problem handled later?
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domain general vs domain specific
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involve mechanisms that are common to a variety of domains (language skills, spatial abilities, mathematical reasoning); mechanisms that are dependent on the particular domain (language vs space vs math)
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modularity
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Jerry Fodor (1983) Extreme Specificity: certain parts of the brain are dedicated to performing specific tasks. properties of modules 1. inpenetrable and encapsulated and 2. fast processing
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stability vs plasticity
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how pliable is human intellect? the degree to which beh or functions are maintained over time; deg to which they can be shaped by experience.resistance to change?
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Kennard Principle
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"if you're going to have brain damage, do it early" holds for lang and spatial reasoning. recovery of function. exceptions damage with general processes (IQ)
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self organization
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dynamic systems: characteristics emerge from spontaneous interaction among the component parts. (of cog development)
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structure: dynamic systems
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emergent property (not innately designed, but not just the product of learning, either) changes are non-linear
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evolutionary psychology
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theories that provide basis for interpreting behavior and dev. how particular mechanisms came to be, why (survival, adaptive?) early functions adaptive. systems must be flexible/to deal with plethora of environments
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Piaget: Bio
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Switzerland b 1896. bio, switched to psych, worked w dev of intelligence tests, Geneva. father of cog dev
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Piaget: Biological Approach
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intrinsically active (interested) organism; constructivism (same event is interpreted by 2 and 7 yr old very differently) adaptation: assimilation and accomodation; equilibration balance bw a and a
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constructivism
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world interpreted thru our personal epxerience..diff ages process same event differently
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structuralism
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organization of knowledge: interrelated and coordinated schemes; as dev progresses, structures change (coordination of circular reactions into higher-order systems) search for obj: lift cloth +reach
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Sensorimotor substage 1
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birth to 1 month: reflexes, no knowledge of objects
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Sensorimotor substage 2 (3 things)
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(1-4 months) primary circular reactions: by chance infant does something, consequence, does it again on purpose, habit forms. first signs of intentionality, no obj know
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Sensorimotor substage 3 (3 things)
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(4-8m) Secondary circular reactions (not just based on reflexes), oriented toward external world; relation bw act (means) and goal (end) ex mobile kicking. attempt to grab object that is still partially visable
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Sensorimotor substage 4
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8-12m. coordination of 2ndary circular reactions:Laurent and cigar case. intentional/w goal-directed; indirect approach employed if obstacle. A not B error
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3 Things Piagetian Stages
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1. w/in stage there is relative equilibrium (apply across domains of knowledge and activity) 2. decalage (heterogeneity) something interesting and diff 3. not tied to exact age, but follow invariant seq (universal) builds on prev. stages. childrens thinking w/in a stage is even, homogen. stage related skills are interrelated
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Sensorimotor Substage 5
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(12-18m) Tertiary circular reactions- trial and error exploration (new means) novelty for its own sake, differentiation bw means and ends (cause and effect) anticipation. no a not b error, but diff. with invisible displacement of objects
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Sensorimotor Substage 6
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invention of new means thru mental combinations. emergence of true mental representation (semiotic function)/ mental signs to stand for other things. imitation- a temper tantrum. memory
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Preoperational Stage
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(2 to 7yr) semiotic function (ex pretend play) thinking is primarily intuitive and rigid, egocentric, semi-logical
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Rigidity
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no reversibility; centration, perceptions influenced by immediate surroundings (focus on local relations and salient characteristics)
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centration
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preoperational- focus on one aspect of a situation; focus on stages (eg before/after)
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Egocentrism
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preoperational- difficulty taking anothers perspective. 3 Mountain Task. uncoordinated parallel monologues rather than convo. but useful? better memory for events related to self
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Semi-logical Reasoning
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Preoperational- transduction, rather than deduction or induction, nominal realism, animism, inconsistencies.
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nominal realism
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preop- things only have one name
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animism
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preop- animate qualities attributed to inanimate objects
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Concrete Operational Stage (4 things)
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(7-10yrs) emergence of operations: particular types of schemes (how children act on their world), internalized action (mental, req use of symbols), logic (rules followed), conservation
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Conservation
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concrete operational- an entity remains the same despite changes in form; number, mass, weight, area, volume: show cultural differences
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Formal Operational Stage
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(11yrs-on) Hypothetico-deductive reasoning, hypotheses tested in systematic fashion, inductive thinking (spec to broader generalizations) internal reflection "reflective abstraction" can be used to acq new info
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Competence vs Performance
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extraneous task variables affect understanding? perhaps difficulty is due to other factors not related to the var of interest (training conservation, focus on proper dimension) cult diff- problem specificity. tasks adjusted for limited motor ability-younger show obj perm. "Theory Theory"
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Theory Theory
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the process of scientific discovery is in place from birth (tho the nature of theories and how tested may change over dev) altered by experience
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Sociocultural Approaches
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how we learn to think is primarily a function of the cultural/social environment we grow up in. cog dev is inseparable from its social/cult context. Lev Vygotsky and Barbara Rogoff
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Lev S. Vygotsky
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sociocultural: tools of adaptation- infants born with a few elementary mental functions (attention,memory,sensation,perception) culture transforms these functions into more sophisticated mental processes- strategies provided by cult bec internalized and influence thinking. zone of prox dev
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Zone of Proximal Development
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Vygotsky- the range bw what a child can do on his/her own vs what he/she can do with assistance (Vy said learning always involves someone else too) Scaffolding: expert helps novice gradually increase his/her understanding of the problem
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Zone of PD (competence and guided participation)
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not absolute but rather is context-specific; variable across cultures.
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Vygotsky and why cog dev isnt universal
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cognition even when carried out in isolation is inherently socio-cultural bc it is affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation transmitted to individuals by culture. not as "universal" as piaget believed- tools vary across culture
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Information Processing HUH
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framework for thinking ab cog dev. 50s and 60s computer metaphor. changes in either hardware (structure) or software (processes, functioning)
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Limited Capacity STM- Span of Apprehension
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num of items a person can keep in mind at any one point in time/ amount of info they can. (cohen says it varies w age) adults 7 +/- 2 items (can change w strategies like chunking)
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Tulving 1985
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LTS possibly unlimited?- proposed that info is stored in long term memory either Declarative (explicit) personal events or Non-declarative (implicit) procedures
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Processing Speed
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we get worse with age- mental rotation, memory search, visual search, name retrieval, mental addition... time to identify items
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Automatic processes
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don't require any of the working memory's limited capacity. w/o intention or conscious awareness, not likely to improve w practice, not likely to be influenced by experience
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Effortful "controlled" processes
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require use of mental resources in STS/WM for successful completion. possible available to consciousness, interfere w execution of other effortful processes, may improve w practice. some may become automatic over time and development
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behaviorist view vs cognitive revolution
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stim--->response, sensation->cognition-> behavior
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Infants: Vision (4 Things)
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can perceive light (pupillary reflex) accommodation 3m(focusing of lens) is poor at birth. convergence 6m (newborn cant) both eyes looking at same object. acuity 12m(ability to see clearly) color(2m)
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Color
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2 months- adult levels- newborns might be able to discriminate bw red and white, but not bw white and other colors..
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Speech Perception
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ab to perceive most phonemes when born, but ability declines (obvious by 6-8m) 4.5m recognize frequently heart sound patterns (their own name)
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How do we test cog in infancy? 3 steps
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1. understand the infant's basic sensory capabilities(vision/audition) 2. determine which behaviors the infant can control 3. apply the appropriate paradigms to test beh
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4 Paradigms for studying cog in infancy
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1. Traditional Learning (classical and operant cond) 2. Visual attention (preferential looking, visual scanning, habit/dishabit) 3. Auditory Attention (sound localization and habit/dishabit) 4. sucking
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Krachkovskaia (1959)
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Classical Cond- 1-16days. Feeding (US) produces increase white blood cell count (UR) by day 6 increase in WBC before feeding (CR) to the CS of feeding US(+CS)->UR; CS->CR
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Papousek (1961)
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Operant Cond- newborn babies- tone and buzzer. head turn- associate buzzer with pos stimulus. Rewarded w sweet tasting solution. contingencies reversed in only 10 trials!
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Kisilevsky (2003) FHR
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30 week old fetuses show increase FHR in response to mother's voice (vs stranger) conditioning!
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Robert Fantz (1958,1961)
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visual attention: preferential looking. alert infants placed in chamber. series of stimuli (pairs of pics) record duration of infants' fixation. preference implies discrimination! like faces, text.. more complex patterns (bull's eye..)
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Brennan, Ames, and Moore (1966)
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visual preferences: like bigger checkerboards.. complexity? or visual acuity is improving..
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Salapatek & Kessen (1966)
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Visual scanning- eye movements recorded when triangle present and absent. newborns fixed on single vertex (area of most contrast).. external to internal effect (more time scanning exterior//to interior)
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Habituation
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refers to decrease in response (eg looking) as a result of repeated presentation of a stimulus. significant decrease is usually 50% of original. Get Bored!
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Dishabituation
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Recovery- refers to an increase in responding after presentation of new (novel) stimulus. (indicates discrimination) one is being perceived other is mentally represented
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Quinn et al (2002)
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3-4m habituated to male or female faces. male cond. loked longer at new female, but female no preference. pref for internal facial features. experience/familiarity? infants reared by male primary caregivers preferred male!
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Danemiller & Banks (1983)- SRA
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Selective Receptor Adaptation (SRA) sensory receptor cells respond initially and then become fatigued. refractory period, later respond again
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Evidence ag SRA
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Slater, Morison, Rose- covered one eye of infants, habituated them to shape. test with other eye on novel and familiar shape.. pref for novel. so pref cant be due to just retinal response
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Sound Localization
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infants will turn towards clicker for hours.. orientation to sound under controlled conditions
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High Amplitude Sucking- Eimas (1971)
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reinforced for energetic sucks for phoneme ba.. sucking wanes(habit), new phoneme pa..change in sucking (discrimination!)
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HAS- DeCasper & Spence (1986)
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pregnant women read story during last 6 weeks of preg... shortly after birth more likely to alter their sucking to hear target story.
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Cross (Inter-) Modal Sensory Integration
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young infants (4m) recognize that certain sound sequences go with certain visual displays (Spelke) girl speaking- and face moving
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Meltzoff & Borton (1979) what they did
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1m familiarized orally with nubby or smooth pacifier. then presented visually w both times of pacifiers. most fixated on the matching pacifier.
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Meltzoff & Borton Results (4 things)
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neonates can 1. tactually disc bw shapes presented 2. visually disc bw them 3. store some representation of tactual perceived shape 4. relate a subsequent visual perception to the stored rep of the tactually perceived shape.
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Meltzoff & Borton Interpretation (2 things)
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interpret: abstract similarity recognition across modalities OR maybe involuntary synesthesia? failure to keep track of the modality or confusion of info from different modalities
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Imitation (Piaget, Meltzoff & Moore)
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relies on mental rep. of previously seen/heart experiences (begins end of sensorimotor) //challenge: examined whether newborns imitate a variety of facial gestures (tongue protrusions, mouth opening, lip protrusions) coordinate info from 2 senses
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Anisfeld et al (2001) imitation
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tongue protrusion higher than in control. u shaped dev pattern- peak during first 2 months of age- disappears, then reappears again. same mechanism both times?
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2 Possible explanations for Imitation
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rapid learning? mostly discounted bc infants only hours old have been shown to imitate. global arousal response? innate-releasing mechanism. reflex like beh "fixed action pattern". prior enviro experience not required? tongue protrusion w pen and w tongue..?
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Diamond- Inhibition
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cog dev can be conceived of, not only acquisition of knowledge, but also as the enhanced inhibition of reactions difficulty inhibiting a reflex?
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