Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
94 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Chantek
|
orangutan that was taught sign language by molding his hands and by imitation. Learned 150 signs and formed his own signs. can make and tell lies. apparently understands english speech.
|
|
|
mental imagery
|
experiencing sensory impression in the absence of physical stimuli
|
|
|
imageless thought debate
|
Wundt: mental images are an element of consciousness
Galton: thinking is still possible for people with trouble forming mental images |
|
|
Paivio's conceptual peg hypothesis
|
memory is better for concrete than abstract nouns, and concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto
|
|
|
mental chronometry
|
measuring the duration of a cognitive task (using, e.g., RTs)
|
|
|
Shepard and Metzler - mental rotation
|
RT has linear correlation with angle of rotation of 3-D objects, implying mental rotation
|
|
|
Kosslyn's mental scanning experiment
|
imagery is spatial because RT is longer to find something that is farther away in a mental image (depictive representation)
|
|
|
imagery debate
|
imagery is based on either spatial mechanisms (like those in perception) or propositional mechanisms (related to language)
|
|
|
Pylyshyn's propositional imagery
|
spatial layout of physical stimuli is represented by words in the mind, not by a picture
|
|
|
epiphenomenon
|
something that accompanies an actual mechanism. (e.g. according to Pylyshyn, the spatial experience of mental images only accompanies the propositional imagery)
|
|
|
perception affects imagery
|
Perky: dim, subconsciously perceived picture affects mental image
|
|
|
imagery affects perception
|
Farah: answers about a letter's actual position are more accurate when the letter was already imagined
|
|
|
event-related potential (ERP)
|
electrophysiological brain response to a thought or perception. measured with electroencephalography (EEG)
|
|
|
Kreiman's category-specific neurons
|
in the MTL, certain neurons respond to specific pictures and to imagining those pictures. AKA imagery neurons
|
|
|
LeBihan's fMRI evidence for perceptual mechanisms in imagery
|
V1 is activated both by pictures and imagined pictures
|
|
|
Ganis' fMRI evidence for overlap between perception and imagery
|
frontal lobe activity is similar for both, but responses are greater for perception in areas in the back of the brain
|
|
|
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
|
magnetic field that disrupts brain activity in specific areas when applied to the skull
|
|
|
Kosslyn's TMS experiment
|
TMS stimulation of V1 disrupts both perception and imagery, increasing RTs
|
|
|
imagery problems can accompany perceptual impairments
|
patient MGS without right occipital lobe has smaller visual field, causing smaller perceptual field
unilateral neglect affects one side of perceived and imagined images |
|
|
double dissociation between imagery and perception
|
in some patients, e.g. RM, they can recognize and draw objects before them, but they can't draw from memory
in visual agnosia, imagery is fine but patients can't recognize objects they see |
|
|
Behrmann's partial overlap between mechanisms for perception and imagery
|
imagery mainly involves higher visual centers
imagery is top-down, while perception is bottom-up processing |
|
|
Paivio's dual coding theory
|
memory includes a nonverbal system (including images) and a verbal system
|
|
|
active processing in working memory
|
information is stored and rehearsed in the phonological loop, then transferred to the visuospatial sketchpad
|
|
|
Broca's aphasia
|
problem producing fluent speech
|
|
|
Wernicke's aphasia
|
problem producing (and comprehending) meaningful speech
|
|
|
chomsky
|
father of modern linguistics
|
|
|
lexicon
|
all the words a person understands
|
|
|
phoneme
|
shortest sound that can change the meaning of words
|
|
|
eye saccades
|
quick, simultaneous movements of both eyes in the same direction
|
|
|
word-frequency effect
|
reading times are faster for high frequency words
|
|
|
context affects accessing words...
|
by helping clarify lexical ambiguity
|
|
|
semantics
|
how meaning of a word affects sentences
|
|
|
syntax
|
rules for combining words into sentences
|
|
|
changes in semantics are associated with a certain ERP response...
|
N400
|
|
|
parsing
|
mental clumping of words into phrases
|
|
|
syntax-first approach
|
parsing determined first by grammatical structure, and if that fails then by semantics
|
|
|
the semantic influence on parsing can be either
|
standing ambiguity or temporary ambiguity
|
|
|
standing ambiguity
|
the parsing of a sentence is ambiguous
|
|
|
temporary ambiguity
|
the parsing of a sentence is only unclear before you finish reading it
|
|
|
most common demographic of subjects in cognitive research
|
college students in modern, industrialized societies
|
|
|
human language is unique because it is...
|
creative and universal
|
|
|
behaviourism and language
|
Skinner (in Verbal Behaviour) says kids learn language through reinforcement
|
|
|
genetic approach to language
|
Chomsky (in Syntactic Structures) proposes that language is encoded in genes. also, kids do NOT learn language through reinforcement (because they create new sentences spontaneously)
|
|
|
morpheme
|
smallest units of language that have a certain meaning or grammatical function
|
|
|
phenomic restoration effect
|
people don't notice a missing phoneme because they subconsciously fill it in with context
|
|
|
speech segmentation
|
perceiving individual words from continuous flow of speech signal (no breaks in an unknown language)
|
|
|
statistical learning
|
infants achieve speech segmentation by learning about transitional probabilities (chance of one word following another) and about characteristics of language
|
|
|
changes in syntax are associated with a certain ERP response...
|
P600
|
|
|
late closure
|
parser puts each new word in the current phrase
|
|
|
garden path sentence
|
initial path of sentence turns out to be wrong
|
|
|
lexical decision task
|
decide whether something is a word or non-word. RTs and reading times are faster for high-frequency words than low-frequency words
|
|
|
Swinney's lexical priming experiment
|
shows that whenever we hear a word we access all of its meanings, but we choose and activate one meaning very soon (200ms) after
|
|
|
N400 means
|
response is negative 400 ms after the stimulus
|
|
|
is there double dissociation between understanding of semantics and syntax?
|
yes.
|
|
|
Tanenhaus' interactionist approach to parsing
|
semantics and syntax influence language processing at the same time, along with other stimuli in the environment
|
|
|
situation model approach to text comprehension
|
readers experience events from the perspective of the subject
|
|
|
Freudian slip
|
speech error that reflects an unconscious motivation
|
|
|
it is more common for a speech error to...
|
result in another word, rather than a non-word
|
|
|
patterns of speech errors:
|
1. phenome exchanges: only same type (between consonants or between vowels)
2. word exchange: only same syntactic category (between nouns or between verbs) 3. word substitutions: often between similar words or words that describe the same thing |
|
|
given-new contract
|
(part of semantic coordination) speaker constructs sentences in a conversation that include: 1) information that the listener already knows and 2) information that the listener is hearing for the first time
|
|
|
syntactic coordination
|
people in a conversation produce sentences with similar structure because of syntactic priming
|
|
|
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
|
the nature of a culture’s language can affect cognition
|
|
|
Roberson's color discrimination experiment
|
the way colors were categorized into names (between British and Berinmo) affected the ability to tell the difference between colors. therefore language affects the way people think.
|
|
|
Yum on culture and language
|
Japanese use more indirect statements than Americans
|
|
|
Fernald and Morikawa on culture and language
|
in language, Japanese mothers emphasize relationships while American mothers name objects
|
|
|
Rosch on relationship between language and color perception
|
no difference between Irian Jaya and Americans in color memory tests, so language is not related to perception
|
|
|
Gestalt approach to problem solving
|
describes problem solving as involving "restructuring"
|
|
|
information-processing approach to problem solving
|
describes problem solving as involving "search"
|
|
|
solving analogies involves..
|
both restructuring and search
|
|
|
insight
|
sudden realization of the solution to a problem in the Gestalt approach to problem solving
|
|
|
Metcalf and Wiebe: insight experiment
|
warmth more sudden for insight problems than for non-insight problems
|
|
|
functional fixedness
|
obstacle in problem solving, when a person restricts the use of an object to its familiar functions (e.g. matchbox, pliers, )
|
|
|
situationally produced mental set
|
environmental conditions that affect an approach to a problem
|
|
|
Newell and Simon on the information-processing approach to problem solving
|
a person searches the problem space (which is based on operators) for the best path through intermediate states to the goal state
|
|
|
in vivo research on problem solving
|
shows importance of analogies in problem solving
|
|
|
divergent thinking
|
for ill-defined problems (many answers)
|
|
|
convergent thinking
|
for well-defined problems (one answer)
|
|
|
Wagner on sleep
|
insight is more likely to occur after a night sleeping (maybe because of reconsolidation of memories)
|
|
|
deductive reasoning
|
uses syllogisms and leads to a definitive conclusion
|
|
|
syllogism
|
deduces an argument (conclusion) from two other arguments (premises)
|
|
|
inductive reasoning
|
surmises from the example of a previous argument, leading to a probable (not definitive) conclusion
|
|
|
availability heuristic
|
events more easily remembered
are judged (by inductive reasoning) as being more probable than those less easily remembered |
|
|
representativeness heuristic
|
the probability that A comes from B can be determined by how well A resembles properties of B
|
|
|
conjunction rule for inductive reasoning
|
probability of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents
|
|
|
confirmation bias
|
tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it
|
|
|
economic utility theory
|
People are rational so if they have all relevant information they will make a decision which results in the maximum expected utility
|
|
|
omission bias
|
tendency to do nothing to avoid making a decision that could be interpreted as causing harm
|
|
|
perseveration
|
inability to switch to a new behavior pattern (in PFC damage)
|
|
|
deficiency in problem solving from PFC damage is greatest for...
|
hard tasks
|
|
|
deficiency in problem solving from temporal lobe damage is only present for
|
easy tasks
|
|
|
emotions influence...
|
decision making (e.g. anger leads to rejecting offers)
|
|
|
atmosphere effect
|
people tend to judge syllogisms that begin each statement with "All" as valid. "All," "Some," and "No" create atmosphere.
|
|
|
belief bias
|
people tend to judge syllogisms with believable conclusions as valid
|
|
|
similarity-coverage model of inductive reasoning
|
connected with the typicality principle and the diversity principle
|
