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68 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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action schema |
symbolic representation - equivalent to the perceptual symbolic representations of the posterior cortex.
The high-level action schema of the frontal lobe (in orbitofrontal cortex) may be the form in which social regulations are instantiated in the brain. |
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Amnesia
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After blunt force trauma, memory for events before and after the trauma is often impaired. Over time, retrieval ability improves, with the period of amnesia both before and after trauma shrinking. Eventually, the bulk of the amnesia disappears, but some period of time remains irretrievable due to lack of consolidation. amygdala-hypothalamus-septum system
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anterograde amnesia
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H.M (bilateral hippocampal damage).
Patients can recall recent events but cannot form new long-term memories. |
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Aphasia
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can't comprehend |
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Apraxia
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can't do |
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associative learning
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Involves relations among different stimulus types.
Classical conditioning: association of initially neutral stimulus with a physiological response. Also called Pavlovian conditioning from Ivan Pavlov's famous experiment pairing light and sound stimuli with salivation response. Before conditioning: US produces UR; CS produces no effect.Conditioning involves paired presentation of CS with US. After conditioning: CS produces CR (same as UR).b. Operant conditioning: association of behavior and its consequences (how to "operate" something). Animal has to perform some task to achieve a goal. Each response is followed by a reinforcement or punishment. |
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Atkinson-Shiffrin model
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primacy and recency effect (people remember the beginning and end of lists of words but do poorly in the middle).
sensory information first passes into a short-term memory store (first stage) and then into a long-term memory store (second stage). |
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classical conditioning
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association of initially neutral stimulus with a physiological response. |
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convergence zone hypothesis
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hypothesis of Damasio,
re-activation of a high level cognit asl re-activates the lower level cognits from which it was formed. |
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corollary discharge
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one signal goes to (some part of brain) and one to prefrontal. (and sensory feedback received by prefrontal cortex) allow learning of motor tasks by modifying movements so that the actual consequences of an action match the intended consequences. |
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corpus callosum and memory
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Some memory networks extend across both hemispheres through associative fibers in the corpus callosum.
However memory is subject to hemispheric specialization, where each hemisphere can acquire memories and motor skills apart from the other. |
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Damasio
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"convergence zone" hypothesis.
- (re-activation of a high level cognit also re-activates the lower level cognits from which it was formed.) |
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declarative memory
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details about time, places and circumstance.
(also called explicit memory) cognitive memory |
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delayed paired-associate task
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associate tones with colors after delay - rewarded for choosing the color that matches the tone.
Success depends on - working memory (holding the sample information) - long term memory networks (storing the paired stimulus associations). Fuster et al (2000) recorded prefrontal neurons that had joint preferences for paired sensory items, e.g. low-pitch/green or high-pitch/red: a. prefrontal neurons fired preferentially to both pitch and color.b. the recorded neurons represented samples from prefrontal networks that stored the learned tone/color associations. |
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Ebbinghaus
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(1885) began the modern history of human memory studies when he tested his ability to recall lists of nonsense syllables.
(evidence for a two stage model of memory). |
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efferent copy
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incoming, motor sends to prefrontal cortex and muscles.
form of corollary discharge |
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emotional memory
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associate visceral and emotional inputs with perceptual items from the external senses
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executive memory
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long term executive memory is stored in the frontal cortex.
The executive hierarchy in the frontal lobe is based on low-level motor areas. |
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explicit memory
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cognitive memory involving recognition sensory patterns, ability to describe details about time, places and circumstance.n(also called declarative memory)
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Deficits caused by frontal lobe lesions
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1)inability to recount serial actions (retrospective memory)
2)planning deficit: inability to formulate new plans of behavior (prospective memory). The planning deficit may be seen as a disorder in the representation of executive sequences (i.e. temporal cognits or schemas of action). |
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false memory and emotions
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emotional content may cause False memory
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Fear conditioning
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Where internal limbic signals (about the state of the organism) affect the learning process.
The confluence of internal and external signals in the cortex may underlie such phenomena. Processes initiated by external stimuli are thought to feed into the amygdala at the same time as, or before, they reach cortex. |
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future memory
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1.Evidence that the lateral prefrontal cortex is essential for the representation of plans suggests that this area “can form within itself networks that represent future action”. Thus, prefrontal cortex may be said to store “memory for the future”. 2. Once such networks are formed, goal-directed behavior requires that certain ones be selectively activated in choosing one course of action over another. This selective activation may be considered as retrieval of future memory. 3.Since the ability to store multiple future actions has great survival value, it is probably related to the high degree of phylogenetic expansion of prefrontal cortex in humans. This ability may also play an important role in creative thought and general intelligence.
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Gutamate
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cortical excitatory synapsese
NMDA glutamate receptor - - is activated by synaptic activity in a Hebbian manner (i.e., as a result of pre- and post-synaptic activity). - thought to be the basis for long-term potentiation (LTP) in the cortex. |
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H.M.
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bilateral hippocampal damage --> memory problems.
It was originally believed that his impairment was primarily anterograde (reflecting an inability to consolidate new long term memories). However, he was found to also have extensive retrograde amnesia (reflecting an inability to retrieve existing memories). This covered most events 3-4 days prior to surgery. |
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Habituation
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decrement in magnitude of a response to repeated stimulation
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Harlow
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physician of Phineas Gage.
first to document the role of the brain in social cognition. |
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iconic memory
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lasts only a few seconds,
continued activity in sensory system after stimulus is removed |
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implicit memory
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behavioral memory
learning a skill or operation (also called procedural memory) |
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Imprinting
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formation of fixed behaviors during critical period,
usually in early life |
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Intermediate-term memory
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lasts hours to days (e.g. where'd you park) |
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internal milieu
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extracellular fluid environment. controls the balances of how everything around it behaves.
can initiate memory retrieval. |
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lateral prefrontal cortex
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Networks in the lateral prefrontal cortex in particular are responsible for new schemas, plans, and programs of action. The lateral prefrontal networks receive efferent copies of movements from motor cortex and subcortical motor structures, as well as the resulting kinesthetic(feedback) inputs.
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long‑term memory
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lasts weeks to years, relatively permanent
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long-term potentiation
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The NMDA glutamate receptor is thought to be the basis for long-term potentiation (LTP) in the cortex.
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memory consolidation
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1) memory consolidation occurs by cognit stabilization and strengthening2) in consolidation, synaptic modification occurs according to Hebbian principles in an autonomous, self-organizing manner, i.e. as a result of concurrent activity without outside control 3) consolidation associates cognits at different hierarchical levels within unimodal cognits, between unimodal cognits of different modalities, and between unimodal cognits and symbolic cognits of transmodal association cortex. |
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Executive memory consolidation
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is thought to operate in the same way as for perceptual memory: 1)Concrete, stereotypical, and automatic movements are consolidated in motor cortex. 2)More general and abstract components of action are consolidated in prefrontal cortex. These include the rules and contingencies of a task. 3)With practice, the common elements of many action sequences generate overarching prefrontal networks that abstract the commonalities of those elements into action schemas. |
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Executive symbolic memory
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1. The action schema is a symbolic representation that is equivalent to the perceptual symbolic representations of the posterior cortex. 2. The high-level action schema of the frontal lobe (in orbitofrontal cortex) may be the form in which social regulations are instantiated in the brain. |
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memory encoding
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storing new information. 2 parts: acquisation (learning of new information) and consolidation (stabailization of learned information). |
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memory retention graph
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primacy and recency |
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memory retrieval
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entails activation of networks that were previously created by consolidation. (Remember, in consolidation, long-term memory is formed by synaptic modification between columnar assemblies according to Hebbian principles as a result of their concurrent activity in perception. Thus, consolidation preserves the patterns of association of perceptual activity in the connectional structure of cognits.) Retrieval involves reactivation of the concurrent activity in the same patterns that produced the cognits. I In the “convergence zone” hypothesis of Damasio, re-activation of a high-level cognit also re-activates the lower-level cognits from which it was formed. Patients with bilateral hippocampal damage (e.g. H.M.) show memory retrieval problems. PET studies have also implicated the hippocampal system in memory retrieval. Priming is the facilitation of memory retrieval of an item as a result of previous exposure to a stimulus that is related to that item. Summary on memory retrieval: 1)the cerebral cortex may be considered as a vast web that associates all kinds of long-term memories, i.e. that contains cognits for all kinds of memory. 2)activation of cognits in this web brings about retrieval of the associated memories 3)the retrieval of memory from this web can be very selective, i.e. retrieval may activate very specific, localized cognits. 4)the retrieval of memory may spread from one cognit to another in a sequence of recollections ( a “train of thought”). |
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Current thinking is that the hippocampal system is necessary for
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1) consolidation of new memories. 2) retrieval of existing memories for a short time in the past (perhaps those memories not completely consolidated)
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Factors that alter memory retrieval
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1) some amnesias result from lowered solidity due to aging or disease, e.g. degradation of memory content due to decline in cognit solidity (synaptic strength). 2) other amnesias result from a failure of the retrieval mechanism, e.g. as occurs after physical insult.
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memory solidity
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The solidity of long-term memory refers to its resistance to loss from injury. Local frontal lesions at lower hierarchical levels are more harmful to low-ranking memory than they are at higher levels to high-ranking memory. This is because of the higher degree of interconnectivity of network nodes at higher levels due to divergence and convergence of connections in ascending the hierarchy.
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Factors influencing memory solidity
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1)hierarchical rank: higher rank is usually associated with greater redundancy of content & with greater access to more association pathways; greater hierarchical rank à greater resistance to injury. 2)strength of connections: memories with associations that are more specific (e.g. dates, names) are less solid (more vulnerable to loss) than memories with associations based on general concepts. The latter are related to more memories and thus more reinforced by repeated activation.
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NMDA receptor
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Glutamate is the major neurotransmitter at cortical excitatory synapses: the NMDA glutamate receptor is activated by synaptic activity in a Hebbian manner (i.e., as a result of pre- and post-synaptic activity). The NMDA glutamate receptor is thought to be the basis for long-term potentiation (LTP) in the cortex.
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non-associative learning
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involves experience with only a single stimulus type. a. Habituation: decrement in magnitude of a response to repeated stimulation. b. Sensitization: progressive amplification of a response to repeated stimulation (e.g. repeated scratching of skin becomes painful)c. Imprinting: formation of fixed behaviors during critical period, usually in early life operant conditioning association of behavior and its consequences (how to operate something). |
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Operant conditioning
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association of behavior and its consequences (how to "operate" something). Animal has to perform some task to achieve a goal. Each response is followed by a reinforcement or punishment.
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orbitofrontal cortex
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The orbitofrontal and ventromedial parts of prefrontal cortex are part of the reward system in the brain. Together with the amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex has been associated with the abstract representation of reward. As part of this role, orbitofrontal cortex has been proposed to be involved in determining the socio-emotional relevance of social information. This means that it determines the social propriety of action schema, i.e. whether a particular action schema is socially appropriate or not. The high-level action schema of the frontal lobe (in orbitofrontal cortex) may be the form in which social regulations are instantiated in the brain. The rod that injured Phineas Gage entered his head through his lower left jaw, traveled through the eye socket, and damaged parts of orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex before exiting through the top of the skull.
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over-retrieval
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Obsessive-compulsive disorder leads to uncontrollable retrieval of perceptual memory, motor memory, or both.
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Pavlovian conditioning
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Association of initially neutral stimulus with a physiological response. Also called classical conditioning. From Ivan Pavlov's famous experiment pairing light and sound stimuli with salivation response. Before conditioning: US produces UR; CS produces no effect.Conditioning involves paired presentation of CS with US.After conditioning: CS produces CR (same as UR).
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Phineas Gage
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The role of the brain in social cognition was first documented by John Harlow, a physician who attended Phineas Gage, a railroad construction supervisor who was injured by a tamping rod. The rod entered the head through his lower left jaw, traveled through the eye socket, and damaged parts of orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex before exiting through the top of the skull.Gage recovered from the accident, but underwent pronounced changes in his behavior and personality. He had previously been friendly and reliable. After the accident, he became irritable, profane, short-tempered, and inconsiderate of others. He also was incapable of making plans. He was not able to keep his job as supervisor and became a wandering drifter. For a time, he was a sideshow attraction with a traveling carnival.
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planning deficit
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Inability to formulate new plans of behavior (prospective memory)(caused by frontal lobe lesions). The planning deficit may be seen as a disorder in the representation of executive sequences (i.e. temporal cognits or schemas of action).
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primacy effect
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Better recall of the first words in a list than subsequent words. The two-stage model of memory was apparently supported by evidence that presentation of distractors between word presentation and recall interferes with the recency effect, but not the primacy effect. There were reports that some patients with anterograde amnesia had lost the primacy effect while retaining the recency effect. Evidence against a two-stage model of memory: Warrington reported cases of amnesic patients who had lost the recency effect while retaining the primacy effect.
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Priming
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Is the facilitation of memory retrieval of an item as a result of previous exposure to a stimulus that is related to that item: a)Priming may be understood as the partial pre-activation of cortical memory networks that are associated with the priming stimulus. b)Experimentally, the facilitating effect of priming may be seen by the enhanced probability, speed, or accuracy of the retrieval. c) The first stimulus need not be recognized for priming to occur, nor must it even reach conscious awareness.
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procedural memory
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behavioral memory resulting from learning a skill or operation (also called implicit memory)
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prospective memory
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future plans |
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psychogenic block
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Dynamic defenses against anxiety may make emotion-laden memories irretrievable by normal recall.
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recency effect
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Better recall of the last words in a list than preceding words. The two-stage model of memory was apparently supported by evidence that presentation of distractors between word presentation and recall interferes with the recency effect, but not the primacy effect. There were reports that some patients with anterograde amnesia had lost the primacy effect while retaining the recency effect. Evidence against a two-stage model of memory: Warrington reported cases of amnesic patients who had lost the recency effect while retaining the primacy effect. |
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retrospective memory
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memory of things in the past. people you've met, things that you've learned/have happened to you. |
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Deficits caused by frontal lobe lesions
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1)inability to recount serial actions (retrospective memory). 2)planning deficit: inability to formulate new plans of behavior (prospective memory)
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reward system
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The orbitofrontal and ventromedial parts of prefrontal cortex are part of the reward system in the brain.Together with the amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex has been associated with the abstract representation of reward. As part of this role, orbitofrontal cortex has been proposed to be involved in determining the socio-emotional relevance of social information. This means that it determines the social propriety of action schema, i.e. whether a particular action schema is socially appropriate or not. |
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Sensitization
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progressive amplification of a response to repeated stimulation (repeated skin scratching becomes painful)
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short‑term memory
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lasts seconds to minutes (e.g. number sequences)
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state-dependent learning
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study on adderall, test on adderall |
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symbolic memory
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memory with associations |
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von Helmholtz
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The theory of corollary discharge originated with Hermann von Helmholtz, who proposed that when we decide to move our eyes, a signal is sent to the neurons controlling eye movements, and at the same time a corollary discharge is sent to the visual system to cancel out any motion signals that result from corresponding motions of the retinal image. He saw this as necessary so that we do not perceive any external movement whenever we move our eyes across a stationary scene or stimulus. He made 2 predictions: 1) whenever a corollary discharge and visual movement signals from the retina reach the visual areas of the brain together, there will be NO perception of apparent object motion. This is the basis for the perceptual property called space constancy 2) whenever either a corollary discharge or movement signals from the retina reach the visual areas alone, there WILL be perception of apparent object motion. von Helmholtz found proof for his theory in patients with paralysis of the eye muscles. Patients with eye movement paralysis perceived that, whenever they tried to move their eyes, the world would seem to jump in the same direction as the attempted eye movement. (This can also be tested experimentally by injecting curare into the eye muscles). Helmholtz’s explanation: in patients with eye movement paralysis, the motor areas of the brain still send a command to move the eyes, but the eyes fail to move due to the paralysis. The retinal image does not actually move because the paralyzed eyes cannot move, but the world seems to jump in the same direction as the attempted eye movement due to the corollary discharge that would normally cancel out movement of the retinal image. Normally, an eye movement causes perception of the world to move opposite to the direction of the attempted eye movement, and the corollary discharge causes compensatory perception in the same direction as the attempted eye movement. Without the actual eye movement, corollary discharge still produces the compensatory perception in the same direction as the attempted eye movement. |
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working memory
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Sensory memory that is explicitly retained to perform a goal-directed behavior. |
