Cog Psych Final

Front 1

reasoning

Back 1

evaluate arguments to reach conclusions, how a person reaches and evaluates the validity of a conclusion

Front 2

LOGIC

Back 2

formal system for deriving valid conclusions

Front 3

normative theory

Back 3

how people should reason (rules of logic)

Front 4

DESCRIPTIVE THEORY

Back 4

how people do reason, based on empirical observations and experimental studies (not rational, but follow predictable principles based on cognitive limitations, bias and heuristics)

Front 5

deductive reasoning

Back 5

syllogistic reasoning, conditional reasoning

Front 6

syllogistic reasoning

Back 6

(categorial syllogisms) 2 statements we must assume to be true and a conclusion, is conclusion valid, invalid, or indeterminate based on the premises?
all pres are politic
bush is president
gb is a pol-VALID

Front 7

conditional reasoning

Back 7

propositional reasoning, relations between conditions, if-->then

Front 8

valid arguments

Back 8

conclusions follow logically from premises

Front 9

true arguments

Back 9

based on what we know in everyday life, can be logically valid but not really true in everyday life

Front 10

belief bias effect

Back 10

when reasoning is influenced by prior beliefs rather they by the rules of logic (stereotypes)
all homeless ppl are poor
some poor people are lazy
some homeless ppl are lazy-invalid, draw circle to see!

Front 11

concrete vs abstract

Back 11

ppl tend to do better with concrete (words) then abstract (letters)
concreteness often helps, but creates confusion when not true

Front 12

problems with negative information

Back 12

"if today is not friday, then we will not have a quiz today"

Front 13

atmosphere effect

Back 13

when logical terms used in syllogism (all, some, none) create an "atmosphere" that predisposes subjects to accept conclusions with the same terms, acceptance due to the term found in syllogism, concrete/context matters

Front 14

propositional calculus

Back 14

antecedent="if"
consequent="then"
~=not

Front 15

if p-->q

Back 15

affirm atecedent: Given p, infer Q (valid, modus ponens)
deny consequent: Given ~Q, infer ~P (valid, modus tollen)
deny antecedent:given~P, infer~Q (invalid) it doesnt mean that the only way to be rich is to meet this precondition
Affirm consequent:given Q, infer P (invalid) cannot convert rule, rule works foward, not backward

Front 16

Watson 4 card selection task

Back 16

if card has vowel on one side then it has an even number on the other
A 8 B 7

Front 17

illicit conversion

Back 17

change part of problem into inappropiate form, think if p-->Q=Q-->P, so unneccessarily turn over 8 card

Front 18

confirmation bias

Back 18

tendency to look only for confirmatory evidence and not disconfirmatory evidence, need to deny the consequent, fail to turn over the 7

Front 19

importance of disconfirming rule

Back 19

repeatingly confirming rule does not give you any more info about the problem, should disconfirm rule to find most info and find rule

Front 20

matching bias

Back 20

look for similar terms, if rule names P&Q, pick P and Q

Front 21

drinking age version of wason card selection task

Back 21

if someone is drinking alcohol then they are over 21

Front 22

transportation version

Back 22

everytime i go to manchester i travel by car, chose correctly 62% in concrete version

Front 23

postal version

Back 23

if a letter is sealed then it has a 50 lire stamp on it, subjects chose correct 92%, abstract version less then 1/3 correct
-italian subjects do better then US subjects, give rule about seal, taps better into their reasoning senses

Front 24

food version

Back 24

If i eat haddock, then i drink gin, not much better the abstract because not very familiar.

Front 25

general finding

Back 25

ppl are better if rule is familiar (not just concreteness alone) better when rules invoke a schema
-if the content of rule is soething familiar then better at reasoning through problem, concreteness helps but what really helps is a rule that youre used to seeing

Front 26

pragmatic reasoning schemas

Back 26

how ppl end up reasoning not according to the rules of logic

Front 27

reasoning schemas

Back 27

generalized abstract rules for reasoning induced from ordinary experiences (social contract senses)

Front 28

permission schemas

Back 28

if the action is to be taken, then the precondition must be met. americans do better with postal problem when rationale regarding first class is invoked

Front 29

social contract schemas

Back 29

if you take the benefit, then you must pay the cost, permission schema of checking for mistakes was not as effective (45% accuracy) as social contract schema of looking for cheaters (80% accuracy) in Grover high school example

Front 30

evolution of reasoning

Back 30

rely on our past experiences and knowledge (two edged sword) social contracts we use when reasoning

Front 31

framing effects

Back 31

when the outcome of a decision (involving gains or losses) is influenced by background context of the choice, and the way in which the question is worded. ppl evaluate outcomes as changes from a reference point, their current state. even though two options in each case are identical, they subjectively feel very different (gains vs losses)

Front 32

willingness to take risks

Back 32

risk aversive-prefer sure thing over risk, when wording of questions implies gains
risk seeking-choose risky option over sure thing, when wording of question implies losses

Front 33

we are not objective, but

Back 33

subjective decision makers
$25->$10 for calc
$125->$110 for calc
-both savings of $15, but feels different, see first scenario as a larger difference, although it is the same

Front 34

car purchase

Back 34

3 options, worse car out of 3 sets stage for how you interpret one car to be better then the other, causes you to weigh features of objects differently

Front 35

sony disc players

Back 35

we like to have a lot of options, more variety is assumed to make you happier, but will be more satisified if you have smaller pod to chose from. too much info is bad

Front 36

representativeness heuristic

Back 36

a judgement rule by which the subjective probability of an event or sample is determined by the degree to which it looks representative (similar in important characteristics) of the population from which it was selected, ppl make decisions based on how representative sample seems of population

Front 37

misconceptions of chance and randomness

Back 37

chance is not self correcting process, native notion or randomness

Front 38

base rate neglect-steve-salesperson or librarian?

Back 38

characteristics represent what librarians mostly are like, but more ppl are employed in retail sales in US 27.4sales/1 librarian more likley to be sales statistically speaking-ignore base rate-fail to use outside knowledge, even when given info about base rate as part of the problem, ppl ignore

Front 39

small sample fallacy

Back 39

small samples are variable and not reliable, not a good representation of the population

Front 40

conjunction fallacy

Back 40

ppl judge probability of conjunction to be greater possibility, but subset cannot be larger then main category

Front 41

availability heuristic

Back 41

ppl estimate probability from the ease with which instances come to mind, ease of recall is often a good clue to probability, but not always. ppl do not correct for salience, recency and ease of retrieval, what comes to mind more readily influences our decisions, k in beginning or k in 3rd position, easier to come up with k letter in tge beginning but there are really more words which have k in the 3rd position

Front 42

mississippi river 500 vs 5000 mi

Back 42

# serves as anchor, start with number given to adjust, adjust upwards or downwards based on number given, adjustment insufficient, different starting points yield different estimates (anchoring and adjustment heuristic, dont adjust enough)
8x7x6...3x2x1-large estimate
1x2x3x...7x8x9x-small estimate

Front 43

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Back 43

people make estimates by starting from an initial value that is adjusted to yield the final answer, adjustments are typically insufficent, so different starting points can yield different estimates (starting points are anchors)
see book-familiarity of names, illusory correltaion/availability, simulation heuristic

Front 44

pros and cons of heuristics in decision making

Back 44

heuristics serve a purpose and allow us to efficiently make decisions that are many times appropiate, however overreliance can lead to less then ideal decision making

Front 45

techniques to overcome

Back 45

expertise (knowledge base helps you make better decisions, emphasize relevant info (like base rates-look carefully @ problem and pay attention to important info, improve understanding of statistical concepts and be willing to apply them in various situations

Front 46

subjective component to decision making

Back 46

may be best way. want what you want and is a good choice, but sometimes fullfills immediate, but not long term gains (resposnible hedonism)

Front 47

hindsight bias

Back 47

ppl say thats what they would have predicted to happen, but not neccc know that it was going to happen
-in general, ppl overconfident in decision making

Front 48

overarching principles

Back 48

-ppl are not logical
-errors not random, based on heuristics
-heuristics normally help us avoid working memory limitations, time limitations, but do not always lead to reasonable judgements

Front 49

imagery

Back 49

"the mental representation of stimuli who stimuli are not physically present"
"mental imagery is the mental invention (things never happened at all-fill in gaps) or recreation of an experience that in at least some respects resembles the actual experience of perceiving an object or event, either in conjunction with, or in the absence of direct sensory stimulation."

Front 50

nature of mental representation (type of thought, not all thoughts involve imagery, mostly language)

Back 50

what we are storing in brain-->
both analog code (depictive or pictorial representation, imagery is like perception
prepositional code (descriptive representation, imagery is like language (encode things in terms of basic proposition)

Front 51

is imagery a special type of representation or an epiphenomenon(byproduct of the way we think)?

Back 51

evidence favors propositional code, but it is a combination, is imagery a real representation, but it is really brain's computation

Front 52

imagery as a memory aid(mnemonic device)

Back 52

paired associates-imagine objects together, one object very strong memory aid for the other, bizareness debatable
method of loci-pic objects along route
concreteness-imagery making things concrete

Front 53

concrete effect

Back 53

more concrete objects then abstract words. pic superiority effect-images remebered better then abstract words,

Front 54

imagery as a medium to retrieve info

Back 54

Properties not previously considered: there are questions that erquire imagery to answer them-things that occur in every day life that we dont pay attention to and need to imagine to come up with the correct answer, not stored as semantic facts, but still in brain and used for retrieval

Front 55

mental comparisons/Symbolic distance effect

Back 55

which animal is larger? mentally compare images of animals to determine. pairs of animals-more distance in size=quicker response time, slower response time for fine discriminations, when things more similar in size need to use imagery to determine -whale vs mouse-not necc to use mental imagery to decide

Front 56

imagery in problem solving (mental stimulations)

Back 56

spatial organization/rotation-position of chairs, imaging saves time, as animal you can fit in spaces, mentally anticipate things different from the way they are

Front 57

perspective inimagery

Back 57

can be changed, can imagine different environments

Front 58

3 mountain problem

Back 58

kids, mentally disordered, fail to take the perspective of others,

Front 59

Farahs work on reinterpreting images

Back 59

OK-different shapes and letters to create a pic-tv

Front 60

other points on imagery

Back 60

-visualizing stats helps you remember it better
-imagery can convey info richer then language, imagery aids in insights-insight problem solving, creativity

Front 61

Imagery as a way to "fool the brain"

Back 61

mental practice for sports/music, psychotherapy-systematic desensitization-fear of spiders, airplanes
physical health-psychoneuroimmunology-picture cancer cells becoming smaller, white blood cells attack smaller ones, actually helps due to placebo effect?by visioning brain acts if something is happening, reduce stress, improve health

Front 62

similar qualities of images/perceptions

Back 62

distance affects time to scan images/perception-takes longer to scan longer images and takes longer to scan things in perception as well

Front 63

Steve Khostler

Back 63

look at images until you remember them perfectly...
map-longer distance in mental image, the longer response time due to demand characteristics-arror probes and takes away experimental bias

Front 64

mental transformations are like physical transformation

Back 64

same for other modalities, like auditory-auditory images have similar characteristics to actual auditory perception (pitch, frequency, volume) images have volume to them

Front 65

size effects

Back 65

bigger thing youre searching for the easier, imagine bee-rabbit, rabbit-elephant-does rabbit have eyebrows?

Front 66

mental transformations

Back 66

time to rotate shapes into correspondence varies depending on angle, more tilted, more time it takes to figure out, more rotation=more time
-mental processes seem analogous to physical rotation
-letter R-further away from upright takes longer to rotate, mental/physical rotation like each other

Front 67

neuroscience of mental imagery

Back 67

imagining/seeing=occipital
hearing/imaging songs piano=temp
-concrete nouns-more blood flow in occipital for recall of concrete nouns

Front 68

perceptual and imaginal processes in the brain

Back 68

regional cerebral blood flow and other brain measures show that concrete nouns, intentional imagery, imaginary walks and retrieving visual like info from semantic memory all activate occipital (visual) areas

Front 69

brain damage leading to perceptual deficits causes imagery deficits as well

Back 69

vision
prosopagnosia-recognition of faces, also leads to trouble imaging faces
visual agnosia-cant recognize visually recognized object
unilateral spatial neglect-ignore L side of space due to damage in RH, also deficits in imaging imagery
-impairment in visual, also impairment in imagery

Front 70

imagery/perception-involve some same brain systems

Back 70

Perky effect:interference and facilitation occurs between ongoing imagery and perception
-reality testing error, confusion between percieving at moment and actually imagining, use of perjection

Front 71

imagery is not identical to perception due to

Back 71

vividness, detail, interpretation, illusions

Front 72

unrelated-interference-imagine something different from perception

Back 72

-detect faint visual stimuli-engagement in auditory/visual imagery, dont have as much resources for actual perception (driving in car)
Cross over interaction effect:
visual imagery-->visual perception=impairment
auditory imagery-->auditory perception=impairment
like modality interference-limited number of resources

Front 73

imagery can also facilitate perception

Back 73

-imagine letter and presented with letter-faster to say that you see it after visually imaging it, faster when image matches what presented when related

Front 74

how do we study what only exists in someones mind?

Back 74

-subjective reports (introspection) but not scientific evidence
-performance on tasks while imagining
-performance on tasks that require imagery

Front 75

imagery and ambiguous figures

Back 75

duck/rabbit-once you percieve the figure as one of these two animals you cant flip back and forth between interpetations, imagined info is processes in similar ways as perceptual info, although there are differences

Front 76

psycholinguistics

Back 76

interdisciplinary field that examines language as a communication field

Front 77

top down processing necc to understand language

Back 77

make interpetations automatically based on context "I had to subject the subject to a series of tests"-we dont realize how complex language is bc we do it automatically

Front 78

variability in phoneme pronunciation

Back 78

pitch, rate, incomplete, coarticulation
-speech is rapid
-variability in phoneme production-more in N, less in S.
-variability in pronounciation-diff regions have diff pronounciations(pick up on diff prononciations and understand due to guiding of td processing)
-language does not follow rules, but this does not impede comp/

Front 79

ambiguity in word meaning

Back 79

same word can have different meanings but we can still understand it

Front 80

syntax (grammer) can provide cues

Back 80

basic rules of syntax are diff b/w languages-rely on order of words to make interpetations about things
garden path sentences-"horse raced past the barn fell" seem ungrammatical when written seen ambiguous, but when said out loud seem to make a lot more sense to us

Front 81

semantic (meaning)

Back 81

semantic network model activates multiple meanings but rapidly favors contextually relevant one

Front 82

mental lexicon

Back 82

saying word activates concept
-figuring out meaning-read sentences about bugs while engaged in another task of lexical decision-ant/spy/sew
200ms ant/spy-activated quick lexical decision
400ms-only ant activated reading sentence

Front 83

surrounding context establishes meaning

Back 83

semantic network actually activates both contexts, but rapidly determines which meaning is appropriate
-working memory capacity-larger vocab, reading comp, high iq-better at understanding meaning from cotext and process ambiguity better

Front 84

non-literal meanings

Back 84

idioms (raining cats and dogs), metaphors, irony/sarcasm-understand almost effortlessly, but not always by everyone

Front 85

resolve pronoun reference

Back 85

jerry and phil were walking out on stage, phil picked up his bass (ambiguous pronoun use

Front 86

Bridges

Back 86

connections between concepts in sentences, proximity of sentences causes you to make assumptions about things

Front 87

mental models

Back 87

-understanding of referent situation-takes longer to read key sentence when it is inconsistent with expectations-see something different (alaska vs florida) and takes longer to process, dont think about it conscious does not pick up, but unconscious picks up because longer to process

Front 88

inferences

Back 88

activation of meaning going beyond literal meaning, what is implied, reading between the lines"i went to chilles, it was delicious" inference that the it is food and was delicious!

Front 89

Memory for verbatim vs gist

Back 89

ppl extract meaning from language, dont remember things word for word, mostly remember gist, but will remember specific things that are important, get into an argument and remember the details
verbatim remembered:
-told to remember it (memorize poem)
-choice of words critical to msg
pg 284 (schemas-remember sarcasm)

Front 90

conversation

Back 90

collaborative effort between two ppl being active, listening is not passive either

Front 91

participants in conversation must

Back 91

agree on topic/theme, determine each others knowledge base, speak audibly in same language, negotiate referents (know what referring to -handouts),. monitor each others and own comprehension-head nodding, collaborate and each contribute, negotiate turn taking, follow social rules-pragmatics-depend on context and familiarity

Front 92

pragmatics

Back 92

knowledge of the social rules that govern language-adapt language to listener, take turns

Front 93

gricean maxims

Back 93

cooperative nature of communication

Front 94

maxim of quantity

Back 94

make your contribution as informative as required but no more then neccessary, concise and informative-giving right amount of info

Front 95

maxim of quality

Back 95

truth

Front 96

maxim of relation

Back 96

contribution relevant to the aim of the ongoing conversation, staying on topic

Front 97

maxim of manner

Back 97

be clear, avoid obscurity, ambiguity, wordiness and disorderliness

Front 98

other convo stuff

Back 98

-lie to avoid consequences, look better or sound knowledgeble
-sarcasms-violate maxims to make a point

Front 99

establishing common ground

Back 99

speakers and listener collaborate to understand what the other knows, talk about things different based on the level of expertise

Front 100

tangram task

Back 100

develop mutual shorthand-speaker and listener describe shapes, might develop short hand or common term, early trials take 3 guesses to figure out what talking about, on later trials-lexical entrainment "dancer guy" use names for people shapes instead of describing in more abstract terms-evidence for development of common ground

Front 101

Indirect speech acts

Back 101

listener responds to meaning rather then to literal question
"would you mind..."
"do you happen to know.."
"can u.." "may i ask whos calling"
-say these things to be polite, signal bc dont know if person is able to do so and gives person ability to explain whether or not they are capable. ask these things to be polite, but the q only really refers to whether someone can physically do something-can you close the door?

Front 102

how literally do people take the indirect speech act?

Back 102

do you accept AE? 100% of ppl give exact answer y or no
do you accept any credit cards? 10 ppl say y or no, most ppl give additional info, but a lot of ppl dont give any info or say y or no, not required to say so

Front 103

goals in conversation

Back 103

gender diff-info vs social needs
women-social bonding through back and forth of info
men-flow of info shorter, have problem and are going to try to help you solve problem-more informational

Front 104

Turn taking

Back 104

adjacency pairs-speaker a-speaker b
question-answer
greeting-greeting
offer-response
assertion-ackowledgment
openings-closing-person's response is an indicator of how willing they are to have a conversation

Front 105

neuropschology of language

Back 105

Language=LH, most ppl right handed=LH dominance

Front 106

brocas aphasia

Back 106

Lfrontal damage, impaired speech production

Front 107

wernickes aphasia

Back 107

LTP lesion impaired language comprehension

Front 108

anomia

Back 108

difficulty in finding names for objects, substitue similar words for correct name of object
damage in angular gyrus in PC

Front 109

paraphasia

Back 109

production of unintended syllables, words or phrases, sub constitute for constitute, word for word, speech errors

Front 110

agraphia

Back 110

disturbances in writing(form of letters and movements to produce them)

Front 111

dyslexia

Back 111

reading impairment, processing of written language rearange letters and problem with serial order

Front 112

innate predisposition of language

Back 112

babies reach towards things-pointing, universal babble, couple months old make many different sounds which are reinforced. phonemes discriminated at few weeks old

Front 113

universal features of language

Back 113

progression of stages-sounds-->1 word sentences-->2 word sentences-not discrete, but overlapping of stages

Front 114

overgeneralization of language (universal feature)

Back 114

-overextension of meaning-dada, call mama, concepts, places, ppl
-overextension of syntax-plural use for single
-similar kinds of errors made in all cultures, brains are wired and have evolved to be this way.

Front 115

emergence of autobiographical memory and development of language

Back 115

development of memory systems, memories begin around 4/5 years of age, relates to development of frontal lobe and memory that goes along with autobiographical memory-how language represents thought

Front 116

language is a communication system, but also a representational system

Back 116

language is not just a tool of expression, but way we structure our experiences
-represent different words-partner for gf/bf

Front 117

language influences both perception and memory

Back 117

-labeling behavior makes you interpret it differently
-verbal overshadowing

Front 118

evolution of language

Back 118

-virtual explosion of language
-huge explosion in frontal lobes
-rapid development of technology likely due largely to language, counterfactual reasoning-think about things that could have/would have/should have happened
-tech and frontal lobes both recent-so interrelated?

Front 119

non human language learning

Back 119

gorillas, chimpanzees, dolphins-language can be taught

Front 120

law of effect

Back 120

in any given situation, the probability of a behavior occurring is a function of the consequences that behavior has had in that situation in the past

Front 121

punisher

Back 121

an event, that when made contingent on a behavior, decreases the frequency of that behavior, aversive, punishment weakens behavior, not people

Front 122

reprimand

Back 122

expressions of disapproval, usually in form of verbal remarks
to reduce the frequency of a target behavior by making disapproval contingent on the target behavior, reprimanding may not be effective bc when you do so you are paying attention to that person so you are giving them positive reinforcement

Front 123

response cost

Back 123

to reduce the frequency of a target behavior by making removal of a reinforcer contingent on the target behavior. if you engage in target behavior you have to pay a cost, must give up something reinforcing (parking ticket)

Front 124

time out

Back 124

"time out from positive reinforcement"
to reduce the frequency of a target behavior by making removal of a person from a reinforcing situation contingent on the target behavior,
attempt to eliminate virtually all reinforcers

Front 125

overcorrection

Back 125

to reduce the frequency of a target behavior by making restitution for damage done and repeated performance of appropiate behavior contingent on the target behavior
-very time consuming

Front 126

restitution

Back 126

means not only replacing the damaged flowers but also making improvements to the neighbors property

Front 127

positive practive

Back 127

repeatedly performing the appropiate behavior in the situation where the target behavior occurred

Front 128

physical punishment

Back 128

to reduce the frequency of a target behavior by making brief and noninjurious contact with the skin contingent on the target behavio
-effective for self injurious behavior

Front 129

side effects of punishment

Back 129

1)undesirable emotional reactions (fear/anger) also leading to person using punishment to become a conditioned punisher, but usually only happens with physical punihsment
2)abuse
3)imitation of its use-children use physical aggression when their parents have physically punished them

Front 130

stimulus discrimination

Back 130

the tendency for behavior to have different frequencies in different situations

Front 131

discriminitive stimulus

Back 131

any event in the presence of which a target behavior is likely to have consequences that affect its frequency, consequences associated with a discriminative stimulus can be those that strengthen or weaken behavior

Front 132

sD

Back 132

an event in the presence of which the target behavior is reinforced, correlated with reinforcement

Front 133

s^

Back 133

an event in the presence of which the target behavior is not reinforced, correlated with extinction or punishment

Front 134

stimulus control

Back 134

when discriminative training has been successful, the behavior is said to be under stimulus control
the tendency for the target behavior to occur in the presence of the sD, but not in the presence of the S^

Front 135

simultaneous discrimination training

Back 135

choice between stimulus presented at the same time...and if the correct choice is made then it will be provided with reinforcement, if the correct choice is not made, then it is not reinforced

Front 136

successive training

Back 136

discriminitive stimulus presented one after the other if the answer is not known it may need to be promted and the faded, more difficult then simul

Front 137

errorless disc training

Back 137

errors made in simul and succ training can be problematic because they produce emotional reactions that can interfere with learning
variation of sim training-sd presented and reinforced, but s^ presented in weak form so that it invokes no reaction, gradually strength of s^ increases
"fading in reverse" if the s^ is very weak then the target behavior wont occur...shown such a faint pic of an eagle that a mistake cant be made,

Front 138

pavlovian conditioning

Back 138

any procedure by which an event comes to elicit a response by being paired with an event that elicits that response -Wallpaper man-wallpaper in bedroom was a conditioned stimulus that elicits fear when hes trying to have sex

Front 139

counterconditioning

Back 139

the use of pavlovian conditioning to undo the aversive effects of earlier conditioning, pair cs (something that elicits negative reaction) with us (something that elicits positive reaction) two main types: desensitization training and sensitization training

Front 140

desensitization training

Back 140

any form of ocunterconditioning that reduces an inappropriate negative response to an event, pair stimulus that elicts neg with stimulus that elicits pos