Cog Psy Final

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properties that are distinctive to language

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1. communicative
2. arbitrarily symbolic
3. regularly structured
4.structured at multiple levels
5. generative, productive
6. dynamic

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why is language arbitrarily symbolic?

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lack of any reason for choosing a particular symbol
--without this-->would be limited to symbols that actually resemble the things they are supposed to symbolize

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two principles underlying word meanings

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1. principle of conventionality

2. principle of contrast

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principle of conventionality

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meanings of words are determined by conventions...words mean what conventions make them mean

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principle of contrast

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different words have different meanings

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productivity (generativity) of language

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one of the properties of language.
-language is inherently creative

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2 fundamental aspects of language

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1. receptive comprehension and decoding of language input

2.expressive encoding and production of language output

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encoding (in terms of language)

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involves transforming our thoughts into a form that can be expressed as linguistic output

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verbal comprehension

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the receptive ability to comprehend written and spoken linguistic input (such as words, sentences, paragraphs)

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verbal fluency

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expressive ability to produce linguistic output

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phone

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smallest unit of speech sound
-a single vocal sound

(click of tongue, pop of cheek, gurgling sound)

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phoneme

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smallest unit of speech sound THAT can be used to distinguish one meaningful utterance in a given language from another
(in eng-made of vowel and consonant sounds)

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allophones

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sound variants of the same phoneme

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phoneMics

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study of the particular phonemes of a language

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phoneTics

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study of how to produce or combine speech sounds or to represent them with written symbols

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morpheme

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smallest unit that denotes meaning within a particular language

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2 forms of morphemes

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1. root words
2. affixes
-prefix, suffix

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content morphemes

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words that convey the bulk of the meaning of a language

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function morphemes

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add detail and nuance to the meaning of the content morphemes or help the content morphemes fit the grammatical context

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a subset of function morphemes---the common suffixes we add to words to fit the grammatical context

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inflections

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the entire set of morphemes in a given language or in a given person's linguistic repertoire

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lexicon

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the way in which users of a particular language put words together to form sentences

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syntax

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the study of meaning in a language--concerned with how words express meaning

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semantics

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encompasses language use at the level beyond the sentence (conversation, paragraphs, stories, chapters, entire works of literature)

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discourse

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occurs when phonemes or other units are produced in a way that overlaps them in time.(overlapping of phonemes)
when speaking, phonemes in a word and between words often OVERLAP.

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coarticulation

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phonetic refinement theory

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we start with an analysis of auditory sensations and shift to higher level processing.
identify words on basis of paring down possibilities for matches btwn each phoneme and words we already know from mem.
EX: watching tv and only heard garbled sound, takes mins to figure out what speaker said, go through conscious process of phonetic refinement to figure out what heard

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TRACE model

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speech perception begins with 3 levels of feature detection (acoustic features, phonemes, words)
speech perception=highly interactive (lower levels affect higher levels and vis versa)

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categorical perception

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discontinuous categories of speech sound. we experience speech sounds categorically[

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?????
view of speech perception as ordinary
vs
view of speech perception as special

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distinct stages of neural processing...how listeners understand speech
vs
speech is perceived via specialized processes

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McGurk effect

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synchrony of visual and auditory perceptions
EX:watching a movie-->auditory makes one sound, but lips of actor move to say something different-->hear compromise sound that combines the two

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(in semantics) denotation

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the strict dictionary definition of a word

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(in semantics) connotation

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the word's emotional overtones, presuppositions, and other nonexplicit meanings

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systematic way in which words can be combined and sequenced to make meaningful phrases and sentences

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syntax

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the study of language in terms of noticing regular patterns.
(patterns relate to the functions and relationships of words in a sentence)

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grammar (according to psycholinguists)

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kind of grammar used by psycholinguists--attempt is made to describe the structures, functions, and relationships of words in language

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descriptive grammar (NOT prescriptive grammar)

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phrase-structure grammars

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analyze the structure of phrases as they are used
-use phrase-structure rules to govern the sequences of words

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proposed by Chomcky--involves the study of transformational rules that guide the ways in which underlying propositions can be rearranged to form various phrase structures
--rules that map tree structures onto other tree structures
--use to detect the underlying relationship that is not immediately apparent by using phrase-structure grammar alone

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transformational grammar

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in transformational grammar--refers to an underlying structure that links various phrase structures through the application of various transformation rules

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deep structure

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in transformational grammar--refers to any of the various phrase structures that may result from such transformations

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surface structure

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ways in which items can be used in the context of communication
(doer, patient, beneficiary, instrument, location, source, goal)

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thematic roles

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within the first years of life, humans progress through 5 stages in producing language

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1.cooing
2.babbling
3.one-word utterances
4.two-word utterances
5.basic adult sentence structure, with continuing vocabulary acquisition

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infant's oral expression that explores the production of vowel sounds

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cooing

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infant's preferential production largely of those distinct phonemes (both vowels and consonants) that are characteristic of the infant's own language
at this stage, deaf infants no longer vocalize

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babbling

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holophrases

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one-word utterances--infant uses to convey intentions, desires, and demands

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erroneously extending the meaning of words in the existing lexicons to cover things/ideas they don't have a new word for

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overextension error

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feature hypothesis

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suggests that children form definitions that include too few features
EX:kid may refer to a cat as "doggie" because of mental rule that "Doggie" is an animal that has the feature of 4 legs

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functional hypothesis

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suggests that kids first learn to use words that describe important functions/purposes
usually viewed as an alternative to the feature hypothesis as to why overextension error occurs

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telegraphic speech

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used to describe two- or three-word utterances, and even slightly longer ones

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language acquisition device (LAD)

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a biologically innate mechanism that facilitates language acquisition.
(humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready to acquire language)

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our understanding and control of our cognition that provides one of our best aids in learning language

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metacognition

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hypothesis testing view (of language acquisition)

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children acquire language by mentally forming tentative hypotheses regarding language based on their inherited facility for language acquisition and then testing them in the environment
(nature and nurture work together)

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3 environmental mechanisms children use to acquire language

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imitation
modeling
conditioning

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child-directed speech

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simpler sentence constructions when speaking with infants and other young children

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overregularization

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occurs when individuals apply general rules of language to the exceptional cases that vary from the norm

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Broca's aphasia

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-some stroke patients show agrammatical speech. seem to know that they want to say, but are unable to say it.
Broca's area plays a role in learning the rules of language

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Wernicke's aphasia

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-other stroke patients also show agrammatical speech. seem to be able to say things, but what they say is almost meaningless. (poor comprehension, poor vocabulary, "empty" speech
-anomia

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anomia

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damage around Wernicke's area produces a deficit in the ability to name things
-cannot retrieve NOUNS want to use

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refers to a simple means of communication that is a rudimentary mixture of the lexicon and syntax of 2 or more languages

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pidgin

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lexicon processes

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used to identify letters and words

also activate relevant information in memory about these words

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comprehension processes

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used to make sense of the text as a whole

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the identification of a word that allows us to gain access to the meaning of the word from memory

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lexical access

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the assertion that the speakers of different languages have differing cognitive systems and that these different cognitive systems influence the ways in which people speaking the various languages think about the world

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linguistic relativity

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characteristic patterns across all languages of various cultures

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linguistic universals

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bilinguals

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people who can speak 2 languages

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monolinguals

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people who can speak only 1 language

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additive bilingualism

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second language acquired in addition to relatively well-developed first language

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subtractive bilingualism

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elements of second language replace elements of first language

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simultaneous bilingualism

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child learns 2 languages from birth

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sequential bilingualism

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individual learns 1 language and then another language

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single-system hypothesis

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suggests that 2 languages are represented in just one system

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dual-system hypothesis

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2 languages are represented somehow in separate systems of the mind

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over time, a pidgin can develop into a distinct linguistic form and has its own grammar, and hence becomes this

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creole

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_______ and ______ arise when 2 linguistically distinctive groups meet

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pidgins , creoles

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-a regional variety of a language distinguished by features such as vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation
-occurs when a single linguistic group gradually diverges toward somewhat distinctive variations

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dialect

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the study of how people use language

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pragmatics

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an impairment of language functioning caused by damage to the brain

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aphasia

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Wernicke's aphasia

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-caused by damage to the wernicke's area of the brain
-notable impairment in the understanding of spoken words and sentences
-involves production of sentences that have basic structure of the language spoken but make no sense, are "empty" of meaning
-differs from Broca's because it is still GRAMMATICAL while Broca's is agrammatical

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Broca's aphasia

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-caused by damage to Broca's area of the brain
-production of agrammatical speech while verbal comprehension is still preserved

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an effort to overcome obstacles obstructing the path to a solution

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problem solving

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problem-solving cycle (steps-7)

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problem identification
problem definition
strategy formulation
organization of information
allocation of resources
monitoring
evaluation

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breaking down the whole of a complex problem into manageable elements

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analysis (prob-solving cycle)

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putting together various elements to arrange them into something useful

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synthesis (prob-solving cycle)

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in ___________ you try to generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions to a problem.

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divergent thinking (prob-solving cycle)

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once have various possibilities, must engage in ______ to narrow down multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer

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convergent thinking (prob-solving cycle)

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well-structured problems

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have clear solution paths to solutions

EX: probs in math, history, geography

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ill-structured problems

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lack clear paths to solutions

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the universe of all possible actions that can be applied to solving a problem, given any constraints that apply to the solution of the problem

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problem space

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sequences of operations that may be repeated over and over again and that, in theory, guarantee the solution to a problem

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algorithms

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informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an effective solution and sometimes don't

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heuristics

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means-ends analysis

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problem-solving heuristic--problem solver continually compares the current state and the goal state and takes steps to minimize the differences between the 2 states

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working forward

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problem-solving heuristic--problem solver starts at the beginning and tries to solve the problem from START to FINISH

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working backward

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prob-solving heuristic--problem solver starts at the END and tries to work backward from there

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generate and test

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prob-solving heuristic--problem solver generates alternative courses of action, and then notices in turn whether each course of action will work

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two problems are _______ if their formal structure is the same and only their content differs

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isomorphic

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distinctive and sometimes seemingly sudden understanding of a problem or of a strategy that aids in solving the problem

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insight

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productive thinking

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involves insights that go beyond the bounds of existing associations
-break away from existing situations and see problem in an entirely new light
-can be applied to both ill-structured and well-structured problems

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the nothing-special view (of insight)

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insight is merely an extension of ordinary perceiving, recognizing, learning, and conceiving
(significant products o ordinary thinking processes)

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three-process view (of insight)

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insights are of 3 kinds, which correspond to 3 different processes (selective-encoding insights, selective-comparison insights, and selective-combination insights)

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selective-encoding insights

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(3-process view of insight)
involve distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information

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(3-process view of insights)
insights that involve novel perceptions of how new information relates to old information
EX: creative use of analogies

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selective-comparison insights

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(3-process view of insights)
insights that involve taking selectively encoded and compared snippets of relevant information and combining that information in a novel, productive way

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selective-combination insights

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a frame of mind involving an existing model for representing a problem, a problem context, or a procedure for problem solving that is a factor that can hinder problem solving
EX: in 2-string problem, may fixate on strategies that involve moving yourself toward the string instead of moving the string toward you.

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mental set

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type of mental set
-inability to realize that something known to have a particular use may also be used for performing other functions (fixation on a particular use/function of an object

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functional fixedness

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type of mental set
-prevents us from solving new problems by using old tools in novel ways

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functional fixedness

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type of mental set
-beliefs that members of a social group tend more or less to have particular types of characteristics

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stereotypes

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any carryover of knowledge or skills from one problem situation to another

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transfer

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occurs when solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a later one

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negative transfer

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occurs when the solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a new problem

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positive transfer

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phenomenon in which people see analogies where they do not exist because of similarity of content
(rather than the similarity of the relationship between the two terms being compared)
EX: LAWYER : CLIENT :: DOCTOR : (a. NURSE, b. patient, c. medicine

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transparency

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putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it
-offers a way in which to minimize negative transfer

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incubation

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an expert process that involves developing rich, highly organized schemas

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schematization

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an expert process that involves consolidating sequences of steps into unified routines that require little or no conscious control
-repeated experience with a procedure may lead to enhanced performance

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automatization

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______of experts may actually hinder problem solving. when?

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automaticity
when experts are trying to solve problems that differ structurally from the problems they normally encounter

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the process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile

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creativity

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the generation of a diverse assortment of appropriate responses
-creativity reflects simply the ability to create more

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divergent production

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erroneous reasoning

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fallacy

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assumption of rationality

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people make their choices to maximize something of value, whatever that something might be

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calculation based on the individual's judged weightings of utility (value), rather than of objective criteria

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subjective utility (subjective expected utility theory)

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calculation based on the individuals estimates of likelihood, rather than on objective statistical computations

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subjective probability (subjective expected utility theory)

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in making decisions, humans show _____, meaning we are rational, but within limits

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bounded rationality

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decision-making strategy in which we consider options one by one, and then select an option as soon as we find one that is satisfactory or just good enough to meet our minimum level of acceptability
-we will consider the minimum possible number of options needed to arrive at a decision that we believe will satisfy our minimum requirements

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satisficing

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decision-making strategy in which we eliminate alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, one at a time
-focus on one aspect (attribute) of the various options--form a minimum criterion for that aspect--then eliminate all options that do not meet that criterion--then select a 2nd aspect for remaining options and continue this process of elimination until a single option remains

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elimination by aspects

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conditioned probability

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the likelihood of one event, given another
EX: calculate the likelihood of receiving ans A in cog psy course, GIVEN that you receive an A on the final exam

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heuristic in which we judge the probability of an uncertain event according to 1) how obviously it is similar to/representative of the population from which it is derived and 2) the degree to which it reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated (such as randomness)

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representativeness

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an example of representativeness heuristic that is a mistaken belief that the probability of a given random event (winning/losing a game of chance) is influenced by previous random events

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gambler's fallacy

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refers to the prevalence of an event/characteristic within its population of events/characteristics

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base rate

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a type of heuristic in which we make judgments on the basis of how easily we can call to mind what we perceive as relevant instances of a phenomenon

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availability heuristic

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availability fallacy might lead to the _______fallacy, in which an individual gives a higher estimate for a subset of events (_ _ _ _ ing) than for the larger set of events containing the given subset (_ _ _ _ _ n _)

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conjunction fallacy

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fallacy in which the individual judges greater likelihood that every member o an inclusive category has a particular characteristic than that every member of a subset of the inclusive category has that characteristic
EX: participants judged a much greater likelihood that "every single lawyer" is conservative than that every single labor-union lawyer is conservative

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inclusion fallacy

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heuristic in which people adjust their evaluations of things by means of certain reference points called "end-anchors"
EX: estimate the product of each set of numbers:
8 X 7 X 6 X 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1
1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5 X 6 X 7 X 8
people provide a higher estimate for the first set of numbers because their computation of the ANCHOR (1st few digits multiplied) is a higher estimate than the second
(both have the same product)

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anchoring-and-adjusting heuristic

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in decision making, the way that the options are presented influences the selection of an option

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framing effects

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we tend to choose options that demonstrate _________ when we are faced with an option involving potential gains (framing effects)
(choose options offering small but certain gain instead of larger but uncertain gain)

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risk aversions

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we tend to choose options that demonstrate _______ when we are faced with options involving potential losses.
EX: vaccine example

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risk seeking

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a judgment phenomenon in which we tend to see [articular attributes/characteristics as going together because we are predisposed to do so

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illusory correlation

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an individual's overvaluation of their own skills, knowledge, or judgment

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overconfidence

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the decision to continue to invest in something simple because one has invested in it before and one hopes to recover one's investment
EX: investing time in a relationship simply because of the history involved and the desire to recover it

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sunk-cost fallacy

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prices paid for availing oneself of certain opportunities

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opportunity costs

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bias-when we look at a situation retrospectively we believe we can easily see all the signs and events leading up to a particular outcome
(occurs after situation is over or after the outcome has been seen)

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hindsight bias

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the process of drawing conclusions from principles and from evidence

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reasoning

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process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding what is known to reach a logically certain conclusion

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deductive reasoning

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process of reasoning from specific facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may explain the facts

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inductive reasoning

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difference between deductive and inductive reasoning

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in inductive reasoning, we can never reach a logically certain conclusion, only a well-founded or probable conclusion

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deductive reasoning is based on _____

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logical propositions

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in deductive reasoning, an insertion which may be either true or false
EX: "cognitive psychology students wear shoes"

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proposition

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in deductive reasoning, propositions about which arguments are made

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premises

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process of reasoning from specific facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may explain the facts

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inductive reasoning

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difference between deductive and inductive reasoning

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in inductive reasoning, we can never reach a logically certain conclusion, only a well-founded or probable conclusion

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deductive reasoning is based on _____

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logical propositions

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in deductive reasoning, an insertion which may be either true or false
EX: "cognitive psychology students wear shoes"

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proposition

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in deductive reasoning, propositions about which arguments are made

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premises

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one of the primary types of deductive reasoning in which the reasoner must draw a conclusion based on an if-then proposition
"if p, then q. p. therefore, q"

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conditional reasoning

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general organizing principles/rules related to particular kinds of goals, such as permissions, obligations, or causations
-help deduce what might reasonably be true
-particular situations/contexts activate particular schemas

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pragmatic reasoning schemas

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a key type of deductive reasoning which is based on the use of syllogisms

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syllogistic reasoning

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deductive arguments that involve drawing conclusions from 2 premises

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syllogisms

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all syllogisms comprise...

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a major theme, a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion

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how people make judgments about whether something causes something else

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causal inferences

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the capacity to learn from experience, using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment

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intelligence

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the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others

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emotional intelligence