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188 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Wilhem Wundt
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-first truly psychological system
-method of "self-observation" -introspection -structuralism |
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Introspection
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method in which one looks carefully inward, reporting on inner sensations and experiences
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Edward Tichner
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-structuralism (first major movement or school of psychological thought
-thought introspection was unscientific |
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Structuralism
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the strucutre of the conscious mind, the senstaion, images, and feeling that were the very elements of the mind's structure
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Hermann von Ebbinghaus
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-first to invent a reasonably scientific, enduring method to study memory and mental process
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John B Watson
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-observable, quantifiable behavior was proper topic of psychology
-behavorism |
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WWII
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-wartime psychologists were forced to concieve of human behavior in different fashion
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Skinner
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-operant conditioning
-advocate of behavorism -learning |
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Noam Chomsky
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-language acquisition problam (LAD)
-rejection of behavorism in explaining language -impact of review of skinner's book on language on experimental psychology |
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Linguistics
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-language was a behavior and a learned one
-language issue was big reason behavorism declined |
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Pavlov
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-conditioning and learning
-classical conditioning -enthusiasm for psychology of behavior |
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Four ways of knowing
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Non-empirical
-authority -logic Empirical -intuition -science |
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Basic scientific Method
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1.make observation
2.generate theory 3.generate hypothesis (specific prediction) 4.test hypothesis/run expt 5.if outcome of test is consistent w/ hypoth repeat 6.if outcome isn't consistent go to step 2 and repeat |
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Experiments
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-randomly assign participants to 2+ conditions
-random assignment allows for strong inferences about casuality |
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Relationship bwt cognitive psy and social psy
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-social psy studies behavior of 2 or more ppl
-cog studies behavior of individuals |
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Relationship bwt cog psy and clinical psy
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-clinical studies abnormal minds
-cog studies normal (intact) minds |
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Relationship bwt cog psy and personality psy
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-personality studies how minds differ among ppl (variability or traits)
-cog studies similiarities among ppl (components of mind) |
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Relationship bwt cog psy and neuropsychology
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-neuro studies the neural underpinnings of the mind
-cog studies the mind and provides more abstract, functional description of mind |
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Relationship bwt cog psy and developmental psy
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-developmental studies development of the mind
-cog studies the developed mind |
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Information-Processing Approach
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-described cognition as the coordinated operation of active mental processes w/in a multicomponent memory system
-general model of the human memory and cognitive systems that went hand in hand w/ broad approach known as information processing |
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Cognitive psy vs cognitive neuropsychology
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-"car engine" analogy
-cog psy: cognition (mind)= software -cog neuropsy: brain = hardware |
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Linguistics
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-have universals
-all human languages are more similiar than different -have specific cognitive mechanism that provides scaffolding for learning lang |
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Computer
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-metaphor to human mind
-has memory systems -symbolic representations (can store and manipulate them) -hardware/software distinction (physical devices vs programs) -made it no longer unscientific to talk about memory and symbols |
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3 Basic assumptions of cognitive psy
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-mental processes exist
-mental processes can be studied scientifically -humans are active information processors (i.e. it is hard to relax and not think about anything) |
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Levels of Analysis of Sciences
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-scale (size) differences: big down to small
-complexity differences: very complex to simple -experimental control differences: no control to complete control -sample size differences: one culture to very large |
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List of Sciences (for anaylsis)
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anthropology
social psy cog psy cog neuroscience neuroscience biology biochemistry chemistry particle physics |
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Cognitive Science
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-study of human thought, using all available scientific techniques and including all relevant scientific disciplines for exploring and investigating cognition
-goal is to develop comphrensive theory of cognition -subdisciplines: neurosciences, computer science, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, cognitive psy |
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3 DV's used in cog psy
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-reaction time: how long takes to perform task
-mistakes: error rates or types of error -verabal protocals: talk aloud thoughts while performing task |
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3 brain-imaging devices
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-ERP
-PET -fMRI |
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ERP
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-event related potentials
-put electrodes on head and record electrical changes -good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution |
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temperol vs spatial resolution
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-temperol resolution: accurate measure of electrical charge (brain behavior) w/ repsect to time
-spatial resolution: localization of part of brain that is active |
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PET
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-position emission torrgraphy
-increase blood flow (use radioactive tracer) -poor temporal resolution, so so spatial resolution |
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fMRI
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functual magnetic resosance imagining
-measure blood flow in brain (oxygenated-blood) -so so temporal resolution, good spatial resolution |
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Basic assumptions of information processing approach
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-paradigm
-computer metaphor -human mind is equivalent to collection of memory systems plus info processing operations -serial (work at one time), independent processing stages |
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Computers: 4 components
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Computer: keyboard (input)
I CPU <=>storag(hardrive) (memory/processing speed) I monitor (output) |
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Humans: 4 components
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motor system(executive branch)
↑ STM <=> LTM ↑ sensory memory ↑ perception/sensation (input) |
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Standard Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin)
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-computer metaphor
-sensory memory, STM, LTM |
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Sensory Memory
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-information buffer
-info held fo short time so can be used -more than one: iconic and echoic |
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Iconic Memory
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-visual sensory memory
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Echoic Memory
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-auditory sensory memory
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short-term memory
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-short term store, working memory, immediate (primary) memory
-characteristics: attention/consciousness limited capacity (7+/- 2 "chunks" of info) control process |
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Control processes
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-operate in STM, allow you to manipulate info
-rehearsal: keep info active -encoding: STM to LTM -retrieval -operators: rules that allow you to do cognitive activites |
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Long-term memory
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-long term store, secondary memory
-repository of all info you've learned -more than one type and they're independent of one another declarative and procedural |
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declarative memory
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-can talk about info
-info you can retrieve from STM and be aware of -episodic and semanitc |
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episodic memory
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for auotbiographical experiences (what you experienced)
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semantic memory
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dictionary type of info
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procedural memory
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-how to do something
-procedures/actions -hard to describe verbally |
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Iconic Memory
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-short duration, can hold alot of info, can be overwritten
-approx 250 ms |
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Sperling: iconic memory
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how much info is held in iconic memory?
-rapid sequences of slides and report as many letters/#s as can -conditions: whole or partial report |
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Sperling: whole report results
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-37%
-on average reported 4.5 items |
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Sperling: partial report results
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-if short interval, report 3 of 4 items which means 9 out 12
-partial report was sample subset of info in iconic memory -partial report with dark pre & post stimulus is similiar effect to flash of lightening |
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Averbach and Coriell: iconic memory
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-how does info in iconic memory vanish through time?
-either passive decay or actively overwritten -12 item array, report specific letter -ques: either letter above underscore or letter in astric spot -prediction was if actively overwritten then second condtion should be harder b/c asteric is spacially where letter should be |
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Averbach and Coriell: results
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-underscore que results were similiar to sperling partial report results
-2nd condition was near impossible -means info doesn't just passively decay but can be actively overwritten by new visual info |
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Why difference bwt whole and partial report in sperling's expt?
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-instead of visual error, made mistakes in auditory (3 -> T)
-in order to perform taks, info briefly in iconic, take into STM, convery into auditory memory -this takes time so after 4/5 items stuff in iconic memory has decayed -in whole report have bottleneck in STM, not in partial report |
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Echoic Memory
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-auditory sensory memory system
-visual info is spatial arrayed vs auditory info is temporally spread out -last bwt 2-4 seconds so can mentally replay what heard |
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Darwin et al. : echoic memory
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-3-ear man procedure: hear message in left ear or right ear or both simaltaneously
-had to report one of the messages |
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Darwin: results
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-whole report: average of 4 items reported
-partial report: 5 items -capacity isn't as great as iconic but duration is longer |
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Pattern recognition
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-templates
-feature-detection -interactive-activation |
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Templates
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-stored models of all catergorizable patterns
-simple -limits: problem of invariance and very slow |
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Feature-Detection
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-very simple pattern, a fragment,or component that can appear in combination with other features across a wide variety of stimulus patterns
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Feature-Detection: basic idea and advantages
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-patterns are composed of simple features that are combined to represent complex features
-solves invariance problem -fast -economical (ie store 1000's of features or millions of templates) -physiological evidenc |
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Feature-Detection: limits
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-context effect
-perceive pattern different THE CAT example |
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Hubel and Wiesle: physiological evidence of feature-detection
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-hypercomplex cells respond to bars of light with certain size and orientation in certian direction
-simple cells respond to light stimulus in specific region of visual light -complex cells respond to bars of light in certain angles -agreed that have "grandmother" cells (rep. sophisticated features) |
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Interactive-Activation
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-basic idea: the Pandemonium model
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Pandemonium model
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-model of pattern recognition
-feature detection model -parallel processing (simultaneous not "one-after-the-other" processess |
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Bottum-up (data driven) processing
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-normal perceptual processing
-way info comes into head from outside -processing is driven by the stimulus pattern, the incoming data -slights contribution made by the cognitive systems |
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top-down (conceptually-driven) processing
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-context and higher-level knowledge influence lower-level process
-bias or influenc present due to knowledge already in head -contribution of existing knowledge |
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Pollack and Pickett: auditory pattern recognition
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-demonstrate conceptually driven processing
-recorded long segments of convo and splice out sentences for individual word -play entire sentence or individual word spliced |
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Pollack and Pickett: results
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-words in converstaion (in context) had 100% accuracy
-words in isolation had 50% accuracy -context of message is important in percieving stream of speech |
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Warren and Warren: auditory pattern recognition
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-took sentence fragments with one word ambigous
-ambigious word comes at end of sentence -report back sentence |
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Warren and Warren: results
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-demonstrates also that echoic memory is important
-found the perception and speech are highly dependent on context, on top-down processing ie "*eel shoe -> heel shoe vs "orange *eel" -> orange peel |
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Two metaphors for attention
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-process: corresponds to process that allows you to select info for processing
-resource: a limited resource that can allocate in different ways for different things |
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Attention as a process
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-alertness/arousal
-orienting response -input selection |
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Alterness/Arousal
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-reticular activating system is part of brain stem responsible for overall alterness
-most basic senses as a necessary state of the nervous system |
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Orienting Response
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-reflexive redirection of attention that orients you toward the unexpected stimuli
-attention drawen to novel/unexpected stimuli b/c could be dangerous -related to habituation/dishabituation learning |
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Habituation
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a gradual reduction of the orienting response back to basline
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Input selection
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-class demonstration about attention blindness
-change blindness: subjectively taken in lots of visual info BUT illusion b/c do far less visual processing than we percieve -attention is necessary to bind features and form single perception -spotlight attention, object based, and feature integration |
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Posner et al. : spatial cueing task
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-spotlight metaphor
-had 3 cue types (valid, invalid, neutral) -report on target (either left or right) -object is to shift attention to target from cue |
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Posner: results
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-neutral cue was baseline, from there valid cue faciliated RT while invalid cue was a cost to RT
-by shifting attention to location of target, process target better (enhance visual processing) -"spotlight" attention -shift attention independently of moving eyes |
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"spotlight" attention
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-mental attention-focusing mechanism that prepares you to encode stimulus information
-internal spotlight you can shift but takes time (like orienting repsonse but voluntary) -3 components |
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3 components of visual spotlighting
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-disengage attention
-move attention to new location -re-engage attention |
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Duncan: "object based"
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-is attention focused on spatial location or object?
-had 2 objects: each object has 2 dimensions to vary -had to judge 2 dimensions of one object or 1 dimension of each object |
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Duncan: results
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-engage attention on particular object
-more accurate when had to identify one dimension per object (2 features 2 objects) -less accurate when had 2 features 1 object |
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Treisman and Gelade: "feature integration"
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-shown array, look for target item (vaired set size)
-target could not be in set sometimes -2 conditions: conjuction and disjunction |
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Conjuction and Disjunction conditions
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-conjunction: AND (2 features bound together)
target = blue and "S" -disjunction: OR (single feature) target= blue or "S" |
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Treisman and Gelade: results
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Disjunction
-set size wasn't really a factor -don't really need to use attention -"pop out" affect Conjunction -RT was really affected by set size -employ attention -b/c attention is limited have to physically move attentionto array -in no conjuction condition, have to search entire array before response |
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Input selection: where is the filter in attention?
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Visual selection
-sensory filtering and mental filtering (spotlight attention) -vision is limited by fovea Auditory selection -no low level filtering (no equivalent to fovea) -only have mental filterning (attention) -focus on auditory selection b/c only have attention |
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"cocktail party" phenomenon
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-how do we pay attention to an recognize what one person is saying when we are surrounded by other spoken messages?
-i.e. hear our own name across the room while engaged in conversation |
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Cherry: when auditory selection occurs
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-listen to 2 messages simulatneously (one in each ear)
-task is to shadow one of the messages |
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Cherry: results
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-repeat back very good but very monatone
-suggests that they're not processing info they're shadowing -poor content memory -1 sec lag bwt hearing message and reporting |
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Cherry: what happens if you switch the message in the ear they're not shadowing?
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People can detect
-speaker change (male vs female) -speech vs nonspeech (i.e. chime, tone) People can't detect -language (english to french) -content message (i.e. report words) |
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When did Cherry propose attention/selection happen?
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-very early on
-Type I : sensory anaylsis -can't set filter on higher level content |
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Broadbent's filter theory
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-auditory mechanism acts as a selective filter
-filter can be tuned or switched to any one of the messages based on characteristics such as loudness or pitch -only one message can be passed through the filter at a time |
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Treisman: Type II filtering
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-hear 2 messages simaltenously, shadow one of the 2 messages (i.e. shadow #1)
-in middle, abrupt change in content of message i.e. #1 "while bill was walking through the forest/ a bankd can lend you $ #2 "if you want to buy a car/ a tree fell acorss his path |
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Treisman: results
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-at junctor have representation of meaning (expectation)
-use top-down processing and switch channeling to other message (2nd half) w/o being aware of this |
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Indication of Treisman's results
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-later filtering based on content of message
-top-down processing -Type II (middle) selection |
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attenuation theory
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-increase volume on message attending to and decrease volume of other message, still get through
-relevant info gets through -> shift attention -consistent w/ cocktail phenomeno |
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Norman's Pertinence Model
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-lots of stuff comes from echoic and makes contact w/ bits in LTM
-bits of info in LTM that vary in terms of pertinence (importance/relevance) -size of circle in LTM represents relevance (bigger=more important) -have momentary importance of info, whether caused by permanent or transitory factors |
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Johnson and Heinz
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-3 ear method
-play 1,2, or 3 messages that are physically and semantically different(simaltenously) -primary task: shadow message (i.e. #1) -secondary task: detect light bulb that randomly turns on -DV: RT for detecting light -prediction is that task should interfere w/ 2nd task |
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Johnson and Heinz: results and interpretations
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-high cost for performin 2 tasks together
-attention is limited -attention is flexible -attention can be allocated at multiple stages -later selection tends to be more limited in capacity (attention is like mental fuel) -later selection is both slower and more prone to error |
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Multimode model of attention
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-3 stages
Stage I (early): sensory analysis Stage II (middle): grammatical and semantic anaylsis Stage III (late): awareness |
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Automatic Processes
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-happen whether want them to or not
-i.e. stroop task -happens w/o intention -not open to awareness -do not consume mental resources -rapid (<1s) |
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Controlled Processess
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-happen w/ intention (deliberate)
-open to awareness -consume mental resources -slow (>1s) |
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Shiffrin & Schneider
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How does automaticity develop?
-task: visual search -2 conditions: consistent mapping and varied mapping -see target items and then determine if following displays contain target item(s) -eventually get new target items and repeat |
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Consistent Mapping
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-target and distractors are from seperate pools
-draw targets from same set and distractors from same set -eventually become automated |
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Varied Mapping
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-targets and distractors come for same pool
-entire set of items can be target and distractors -discrimination will never become automated |
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Shiffrin & Schneider: results
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-consistent mapping had close to 100% accuracy even as increased number of distractors
-varied mapping decreased in accuracy as increased number of distractor -varied mapping was less accurate, slower, and affected by # of distractors |
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Necessary Conditions for automatic processes
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-extensive practice
-consistent mapping (consistent manner throughout practices) |
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Advantages/Disadvantages of automaticity
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Pros
-less resource demanding so can multitask -transfer (2 tasks have to be similiar) i.e. automatic process for throwing baseball, become automatic for throwing softball Cons -can lead to mistakes -neg. transfer (perform 2nd task worse b/c of transfer) i.e. drivingin Eng. when use to driving in US |
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Hemi-Neglect
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-disruption or decreased ability to lookat something in the (often) left field of vision and pay attention to it
-usually damage to right parietal lobe -disorder of attention in which one half of the perceptual world is neglected to some degree and cannot be attended to as completely or accurately as normal |
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Crowder and Morton: auditory persistence
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-present 9 digits
-2 conditions: silent vocalization, active vocalization, and passive vocalization |
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Crowder and Morton: results
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-lingering sensory trace fro the last sounds that were heard
-silent group showed substantial error on the last items b/c no audiotry sensory memory trace for them -modality effect |
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Crowder and Morton: conclusions
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-auditory sensory memory is similiar to visual sensory memory but details of storage and duration differ
-if attention is redirected during critical interval, info can be sent to STM preventing if from being lost |
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Modality Effect
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superior recall of the end of the list when the auditory modde is used instead of the visual mode of presentation
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Crowder and Morton Conditions
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Silent Vocalization: saw numbers and read them silently
Active Vocalization: saw the listt and asked to name the digits out loud Passive Vocalization: heard an accompanying tape recording the named the viewed digits for them |
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Biederman's Recognition by components model
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-recognize objects by breaking them down into their components, then looking this combination of components in memory to see which object matches the combination
-have geons |
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2 aspects of patterns important to recognition by components
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-first find the edges of objects
-second we carefully scan regions of the pattern where the lines intersect, usually places where deep concave angles are formed |
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Evidence for RBC, shortcomings
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-if pattern is degrade, it matters where it was degraded
-esp tied to bottum-up processg -suggests whole is percieved by first identifying the components |
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Pandemonium Model: aspects
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-pattern encoded by set of data demons
-next computational demons act (feature analyzers) -when computational demon matches stiumul feature, begins to shout -cognitive demons listen to shouting -match found causes cog. demons to begin shouting -several cog. demons shout at once -loudest cog demon is heard by decision demon (highest level) -decision demon has final say in recognizing and categorizing the pattern |
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Two important ideas of pandemonium model
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-feature detection model
-idea of parallel processing |
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Cognitive Science
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scientific study of thought, learning, the brain-in short the scientific study of the mind
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memory
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mental processes of acquiring and retaining info for later retrieval and the mental storage system that enables these processes
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cognition
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the collection of mental processes and activities used in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and understanding as well as the acto of using those processes
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ecological validity
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generalizability to the real-world situations in which people think and act
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reductionistic
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attempting to understand complex events by breaking them down into their components
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empiricism
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observation as the basis for all science
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tabula rosa
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aristotle's insistence that the mind is a "blank slate" at birth
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functionalism
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the functions of consciousness rather than its structure were of interest
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verbal learning
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branch of experimental psychology that dealt with human subjects as they learned verbal material, stimuli composed of letters or sometimes words
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metatheory
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set of assumptions and guiding principles
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reaction time
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a measure of the time elapsed bwt some stimulus and the person's response to the stimulus
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channel capacity
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any channel (any physical device that transmits messages or information) has a limited capacity
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encoding
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the act of taking in information and converting it to a usable mental form
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process model
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a hypothesis about the specific mental processes that take place when a particular taks is performed
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lexical decision task
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"word/nonword task", a timed task in which people decide whether letter strings are or are not english words
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word frequency effect
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it takes significantly longer to judge words of lower frequency than it does to judge high-frequency words
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sequentail stages of processing
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a sequence of stages or processes that occur on every trial, a set of stages that completely account for mental processing in the task
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independent and nonoverlapping
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any single stage was assumed to finish its operation completely before the next stage in the sequence could begin, and the duration of any single stage had no bearing or influence on the other stage
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parallel
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simultaneously
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verbal protocol
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procedure in which participants are asked to verbalize their thoughts as they solve the problem
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cognitive science
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the study of human thought using all available scientific techniques and including all relevant scientific disciplines for exploring and investigating cognition
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dissociation
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a disruption in one component of mental functioning but no impairment of another
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synapse
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region where the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of another come together
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neocortex
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-cerebral cortex
-top layer of the brain responsible for higher-level mental processes |
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cerebral lateralization
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different functions or actions w/in the brain tend to rely more heavily on one hemispher or the other or tend to be performed differently in the two hemisphers
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event-related potentials
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the momentary changes in electrical activity of the brain when a particular stimulus is presented to the subject
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retina
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rods and cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells
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fovea
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small area where most of the cones lie that provides us w/ our most accurate precise vision
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sensation
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reception of stimulation from the environment and the initial encoding of that stimulation into the nervous system
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perception
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the process of interpreting and understanding sensory information
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saccades
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eye sweeps from one point to another in fast movements
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fixations
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pauses that interrupt eye movements
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change blindness
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failure to notice changes in visual stimuli when those changes occur during a saccade
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inattentional blindness
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we sometimes fail to see an object we are looking at directly, even a highly visible one, b/c our attention is directed elsewhere
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visual persistenc
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apparent persistence of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration
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span of apprehension
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number of individual items recallable after any short display
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whole report condition
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subjects are to report any letters they can
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partial report condition
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only one of the row was to be reported
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decay
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passive process like fading
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interference
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forgetting caused by the effects of intervening stimulation or mental processing
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backward masking
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a later visual stimulus can drastically affect the perception of an earlier one
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erasure
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when the contents of visual sensory memory are degraded by subsequent visual stimuli
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focal attention
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mental process of visual attention, such as the mental redirection of attention when the partial report cue is presented
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feature anaylsis
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feature detection
-very simple pattern, a fragment, or component that can appear in combination w/ other features across a widely variety of stimulus patterns |
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repetition blindness
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the tendency to not perceive a pattern, whether a word, a picture, or any other visual stimulus, when it is quickly repeated
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geons
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basic "primitives", simple 3-D geometric forms
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agnosia
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a failure or deficit in recognizing objects, either b/c the pattern of features cannot by synthesized into a whole or b/c the person cannot then connect the whole pattern to meaning
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prosopagnosi
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a disruption of face recognition
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apperceptive agnosia
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a basic disruption in perceiving patterns
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associative agnosia
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cannot associate the pattern with meaing
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audition
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sense of hearing
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problem of invariance
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the sounds of speech are not invariant from one time to the next
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phoneme
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language sound
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attention
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the mental process of concentrating effort on a stimulus or a mental event
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input attention
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the basic process of getting sensory information into the cognitive system
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explicit processing
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those involving conscious processing, conscious awareness that a task is being performed, and usually conscious awareness of the outcome of that performance
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implicit processing
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processing with no necessary involvment of conscious involvment
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habituation
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gradual reduction of the orienting response back to baseline
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benefit or facilitation
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a faster than baseling response resulting from the useful advance information
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cost
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a response slower than baseline b/c of the misleading cue
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controlled attention
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deliberate, voluntary allocation of mental effort or concentration
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selective attention
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the ability to attend to one source of information while ignoring or excluding other ongoing messages around us
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filtering or selecting
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the mental process of eliminating those distractions, eliminating unwanted messages
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dual task or dual messag procedure
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two tasks or messages are presented such that one task or message captures the person's attention as completely as possible
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shadowing task
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to repeat the message out loud as soon as it was heard
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psychological refractory period
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-attentional blink
-a brief-slow down in mental processing due to having processed another very recent event |
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automaticity
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with little or no necessary involvment of a conscious, limited-attention mechanism
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priming
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a word automatically activates or primes its meaning in memory and as a consequence primes or activates meanings closely associated with it
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