Cog Neuro Exam 3

Front 1

reflex action

Back 1

tell muscle to contract without going through the brain

Front 2

central pattern generators

Back 2

-in the peripheral nervous system (spinal cord)
-shown by severing brain from lower half of body in cats and they still had stereotyped walking movements
-extensors and flexors used to create movements
-neurons in the spinal cord that can generate an entire sequence of actions without any external feedback signal

Front 3

motor cortex location

Back 3

-posterior portion of the frontal lobe

Front 4

somatotopic representation location

Back 4

primary and secondary motor cortex

Front 5

1. premotor and supplementary motor areas (complex motor planning)
2. cerebellum and/or basal ganglia
3. motor cortex
4. brainstem
5 spinal cord

Back 5

hierarchical organization of motor system

Front 6

cerebellum and basal ganglia

Back 6

major hubs of action processing and planning

Front 7

action sequences instead of muscle memory examples

Back 7

-writing same word with different arms/legs etc shows similarity
-shows that complex motor actions stored in the brain not the muscles

Front 8

significance of monkey with lever study

Back 8

-cell activated more when moving towards animal
-motor cortex cells code movement direction

Front 9

population vector

Back 9

-summed activity over all the cells
-entire group of neurons combined to code for fine movements
-neurons will activate that code for a certain limb and direction

Front 10

internally driven movements/internal loop

Back 10

think of an action and generate it
-consists of supplementary motor area (SMA) and basal ganglia, and prefrontal cortex

Front 11

external loop

Back 11

-responding to external stimuli
-consists of cerebellum, parietal cortex and lateral premotor cortex (PMC) (basal ganglia also plays role)

Front 12

cerebellum

Back 12

- important in timing movements
-rabbit study showed that lesion to this area made it difficult to learn to time eye blinks to protect from air puff

Front 13

basal ganglia

Back 13

-important in initiating movements
-overall firing rates are high
-gating response (builds up action plan and release the "best one")
-connected by excitatory and inhibitory connections and picks the best one, most active response
-connections driven by dopamine
-both direct and indirect pathways (indirect goes through another complex network)

Front 14

parkinson's disease

Back 14

-disease of the basal ganglia
-loss of dopamine neurons on substantia nigra
-resting tremors and difficulty initiating movements

Front 15

set shifting in parkinsons patients

Back 15

-have trouble with this in both motor and cognitive tasks
-indicates more cognitive role for basal ganglia

Front 16

parkinsons treatments

Back 16

-L-dopa to enhance synthesis of dopamine
-deep stimulation of basal ganglia
-enhancing oscillatory processing loop and allows movements to occur timed to the peaks
-overcome barrier to initiate movements

Front 17

huntington's disease

Back 17

-disease of the basal ganglia
-genetic degenerative
-causes massive loss in striatal neurons giving rise to loss of coordinated movements
-can't time actions, have involuntary movements (chorea)
-cognitive deficits as well

Front 18

memory

Back 18

a lasting representation that is reflected in thought, experience, or behavior

Front 19

learning

Back 19

the acquisition of such representations, involving a wide range of brain areas and activities

Front 20

memory storage

Back 20

involves widespread synaptic alterations in the cortex

Front 21

activation based memory

Back 21

-working memory
-representing info actively, pattern of neuronal firing
-limited capacity
-reliable

Front 22

weight based memory

Back 22

-long term memory
-changing synaptic weights
-changes between neurons to form memories
-activating specific patterns of nueronal firing that represents a certain memory

Front 23

declarative (explicit) and nondeclaritive (implicit)

Back 23

types of long term memory

Front 24

declarative memory

Back 24

events and facts (sematic memory))
can be described with words
-episodic and semantic

Front 25

explicit memory

Back 25

declaritive memory
-conscious at encoding and retrieval
-can be verbalized
-bound to time and place (events/facts)

Front 26

implicit memory

Back 26

-nondeclarative memory
-cannot verbalize
-unconscious at encoding and retrieval
-inferred from effects on behavior

Front 27

episodic memories

Back 27

involves conscious awareness of past events, defined by the temporal context in which you experienced them
-bound to time and place, 'mental time travel' thinking back to time in the past

Front 28

semantic memory

Back 28

-memory reflects knowing facts extracted from the statistical regularities of our experience
-facts, world knowledge

Front 29

procedural memory, perceptual representation system, classical conditioning, nonassociative learning

Back 29

nondeclarative memory types

Front 30

types of procedural memory

Back 30

priming, nonassociative learning, classical conditioning

Front 31

priming

Back 31

The change in the response to a
stimulus or in the ability to
identify a stimulus as the result
of prior exposure to that
stimulus.

Front 32

non-associative learning

Back 32

-Does not require an
association and instead
manifests as habituation and
sensitization.
-less activation when given the same stimulus over and over

Front 33

classical conditioning

Back 33

A conditioned stimulus
(CS) is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (US) to
eventually give a response on its
own.

Front 34

amnesia impairments

Back 34

-due to damage in MTL
-interferes with episodic and semantic processing/learning but implicit memories remain intact
-perform well in implicit memory weather task
-working memory remains intact

Front 35

medial temporal lobe

Back 35

-important for memory formation
-contains both hippocampi
-highly interactive crossroads for integrating multiple brain inputs and for coordinating learning and retrieval in many parts of the cortex
'hub of hubs'

Front 36

remembering an experience

Back 36

involves: experiencing an episode (visual cortex encodes sight of coffee cup)
-storage (MTL binds cortical memory traces about coffee cup and its semantic associations
-episodic memory: visual cortex decodes MTL based neocortical memory bundle and reconstructs the coffee cup

Front 37

memory consolidation

Back 37

-memories are consolidated to the cortex over time and then the MTL is not needed to recover memories (why HM had past memories but couldnt form new ones)
-occurs on different time scales (short term, long term, long-lasting)

Front 38

long term potentiation

Back 38

-first step of memory formation according to hebbian learning
-NMDA receptors in the post-synaptic neuron gate Ca influx with a magnesium blocker
-Ca induces a cascade of synaptic changes that enhance EPSP

Front 39

dentate gyrus

Back 39

-helps bind unique patterns to other more similar patterns in LTP

Front 40

Long term depression

Back 40

-depression in the EPSP

Front 41

memory consolidation in sleep

Back 41

-neural activity during sleep tracks what happened during the day
-replayed 20-40 times faster
-supports memory consolidation within the MTL and to the neocortex
-shown by rat research that show a replay of running on a track, place cells fire when at certain place

Front 42

subsequent memory effect (SME)

Back 42

-what predicts something will be remembered
-studies show that increased activation while studying object predicted for higher likelihood of remembering
-activity in posterior hippocampus and parahippocampus predicted SOURCE recognition memory
-network of prefrontal and parietal regions showed more activation during successful memory formation

Front 43

-gamma osc in the hippocampus, LIPC, and left temporal regions during encoding predict successful memory formation

Back 43

oscillatory SME

Front 44

gamma power

Back 44

-tracks processing over time and goes along with primacy
-this activation decreases over time as chance of remembering decreases over time and serial position
-suggests divided attention as the number of items to retain increases
-when preparing for new inputs, have all this free representational space

Front 45

hippocampus

Back 45

tracks correct recollection in the MTL when retrieving info

Front 46

entorhinal cortex

Back 46

-tracks recognition confidence during memory retrieval
-graded based on memory strength
-not all or none responses

Front 47

false memory

Back 47

-when episodic memory fails, we fill in the gaps with semantic knowledge

Front 48

anterior hippocampus

Back 48

-activates for false memory as well as real memory

Front 49

posterior parahippocampus

Back 49

distinguishes between false and real memory and only activates for true memories
-more sensitive to the sensory attributes of the stimulus (ie the source that was different between the two items)

Front 50

HERA model

Back 50

-modality assymmetry
-left hemisphere biased for episodic encoding and semantic retrieval
-right hemisphere does episodic retrieval

Front 51

thinking

Back 51

how we solve a problem
foundation of our consciousness

Front 52

problem solving

Back 52

-if free will then life is full of choices, need to use this to decide
-entails constant interaction between working and long term memory

Front 53

an initial state, a goal state, and the steps to transform initial to goal state

Back 53

three characteristics of problem solving

Front 54

frontal lobe

Back 54

-hub of central executive system, higher level thinking

Front 55

explicit problem solving

Back 55

-clear conscious goals and defined steps
-greater executive control, needs more recruitment of cortical areas
-(eg mental arithmetic)

Front 56

implicit problem solving

Back 56

-may be more common than explicit, learn and practice new skills all the time
-skills become more automatic with practice
-less exec control, less conscious access, less cortical recruitment, less cog load

Front 57

reinforcement learning

Back 57

-through experience with the world we learn the value of the transitions between states
-predicts how people will react in certain environments
-deals with the many states that define our world and goals

Front 58

anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and basal ganglia

Back 58

brain areas in reinforcement learning

Front 59

anterior cingulate cortex

Back 59

-activates during many forms of error detection and resolution
-activates when in situation you dont want to be in
-sends signals that need to change when detects a conflict

Front 60

orbitofrontal cortex

Back 60

-evaluates the reward of a situation
-recieves input from sensory modalities inc gustatory and olfactory
-taste/smell tied to rewards

Front 61

basal ganglia

Back 61

-generates the reward signal and integrates
-critical in integrating/binding together rewards and mental states
-how specific value of state gets mapped together with that state

Front 62

exploitation

Back 62

-phasic firing (firing of neurons, then turn off)
-continue the current action

Front 63

exploration

Back 63

-tonic firing
-search for more optimal options

Front 64

locus coeruleus

Back 64

-recieves input from ACC and OFC and innervates much of the brain
-play critical role in determining current mode
-activation defines what mode currently in, want to stay or look for other choices
-pupil diameter tracks this activity

Front 65

DLPFC

Back 65

activates during explicit problem solving

Front 66

wisconsin card sorting task

Back 66

-used to evaluate the neural correlates of task switching
-anterior cingulate cortex activates when detect error and must change it

Front 67

PFC and parietal lobes

Back 67

-changing tasks recruits portion of the executive control network in.....

Front 68

tDSC (trancranial direct current stimulation)

Back 68

-used in problem solving tasks and showed more problems solved where a change in approach is necessary
-may be due to inhibition of the anterior temporal lobe (ATL) which keeps you in a mental task set

Front 69

mental effort and cortical activity

Back 69

working memory "load" and recruitment of executive control areas increases with number of items kept in memory
-as N back task has more items, more

Front 70

decrease in alpha and increase in gamma power

Back 70

-evidence of sudden insight right before a person makes a correct response in word that relates 3 words together

Front 71

semantic representations

Back 71

-organized by perceptual features
-carry visual images that are prototype reminders (ie, generic bird, chair etc)
-any representation of experience stored in complex networks of features that can combine in different ways

Front 72

networks of knowledge

Back 72

-mental representations including words, concepts, and images are organized into these
-complex webs of learned connectivities
-as # of features that overlap increases, shows that representations are more similar

Front 73

semantic working memory

Back 73

involves constantly looping activity between the temporal and frontal lobes

Front 74

posterior temporal lobes

Back 74

-represent more generic groups of features, becoming more unique as you travel to anterior temporal lobe

Front 75

patient EW

Back 75

-exhibited animal specific semantic deficits
-trouble with visual/auditory animal stimuli, fine with other categories

Front 76

lexicon

Back 76

combination of phonological, grammar/syntax, and semantic extraction
-needed in decoding language

Front 77

semantic representations

Back 77

at the crossroads of understanding and producing language

Front 78

widespread language areas

Back 78

-not only brocas and wernickes, but different types of decoding language is spread out and overlapping with one another
-overlap between structure and function of speech phonology, meaning, and grammar

Front 79

EEG

Back 79

can be used to track the processing of sentences
-latency same in syntactic and semantic violation responses but different distribution

Front 80

N400 response

Back 80

semantic violations, expectation violations induce this

Front 81

left anterior negativity (LAN)

Back 81

-syntactic violations (ie, 'he mow the lawn')
-

Front 82

language lateralization

Back 82

-96% of human pop is left hemisphere dominant

Front 83

corpus callosum

Back 83

-important in synchronizing and connecting 2 hemispheres
-even when activating same receptive fields, cannot synchronize without this

Front 84

homotopic

Back 84

-corpus callosum connects same area in different hemispheres

Front 85

heterotopic

Back 85

-corpus callosum connects area in one hemisphere to different area in the other hemisphere

Front 86

organized from anterior to posterior

Back 86

projections by corpus callosum

Front 87

left hemisphere approach to problem solving

Back 87

-will try to frequency match (predict the environment)
-try to analyze every stimulus that comes in

Front 88

right hem approach to problem solving

Back 88

-will try to simply maximize
-get the gist of what is going on

Front 89

forest and the trees- hemispheric differences

Back 89

-right hemisphere patients (only left active): not jst gist, look at details and copy all the letters that make up the bigger letter
-left hem patients (only right active): will get the gist of the M and ignores letters that make it up

Front 90

1. The ability to guide its behavior by internal representations – the formulation of plans and then guiding behavior according to those plans.
2. The ability to “switch gears” when something
unexpected happens.

Back 90

two broad types of functions linked to the frontal lobe executive system

Front 91

phylogeny

Back 91

the prefrontal cortex has expanded over mammalian and primate evolution.

Front 92

ontogeny

Back 92

The slow developmental path to frontal lobe maturity is also unique to humans
-development in a single individual

Front 93

prefrontal cortex

Back 93

larger portion of this makes up brain of human than any other animal (29%)

Front 94

dorsomedial thalamic nucleus

Back 94

point of convergence for the prefrontal cortex

Front 95

perseverative behavior, field-dependent behavior, mental rigidity, and abulia

Back 95

results from damage to dorsolateral PFC

Front 96

abulia

Back 96

inability to initiate behaviors

Front 97

field dependent behavior

Back 97

-high dictractability, cannot prevent themselves from doing something, even if actions make no sense
-decisions are driven by how they interact with the world

Front 98

Orbitofrontal damage

Back 98

-behaviorally and emotionally disinhibited
-go from euphoria to rage
-since this is critical for tracking rewards, patients with this damage cannot link what is happening now to what will be good for them in the future, and they have impulse control problems

Front 99

frontal lobotomies

Back 99

-severed white matter tracts to the thalamus to disconnect PFC from rest of brain to treat range of conditions
-people became listless and could not function in society
-gave rise to massive behavioral difficulties

Front 100

working memory and PFC needed in remembering temporal order of events

Back 100

-this is shown by lobotomy patients performing poorly in remembering the how recently an object was seen

Front 101

working memory in delayed match to sample task

Back 101

-PFC activation remains high during delay of DMS task and is related to how many faces must be maintained
-PFC responds to working memory load and how many faces must be maintained in memory

Front 102

FFA activation before maintenance in the PFC for match to sample task

Back 102

match to sample task encoding

Front 103

PFC activates before FFA

Back 103

match to sample task retrieval

Front 104

superior parietal sulcus (parietal) and dPFC

Back 104

spatial processing recruits this

Front 105

temporal and inferior frontal

Back 105

verbal processing recruits this

Front 106

anterior prefrontal

Back 106

responds the same for all tasks in spatial/verbal, front/backwards

Front 107

DLPFC

Back 107

activates more for remembering backwards

Front 108

inhibitory control to attending to face or house

Back 108

-when told to attend to face or house, the FFA and PPA activated more than the other
-neural representations were modulated based on the goal
-not only bolster what you need, but inhibit what you dont (ie, remembering face, FFA increases and PPA decreases from normal to allow for better face remembering)

Front 109

ACC and lateral PFC

Back 109

interaction between these structures facilitate goal directed behavior in the stroop task

Front 110

increase in activation of lateral PFC

Back 110

-occurs when told to identify color is the stroop task (the more difficult task)
-enhanced after ACC conflict detection

Front 111

ACC

Back 111

-activation in this area varies based on the amount of conflict in the stroop task
-sends projections to lateral PFC

Front 112

emotion

Back 112

sets of physiological responses,
action tendencies (behavior), and subjective
feelings that adaptively engage humans and
other animals to react to events of biological
and/or individual significance

Front 113

categorical theories of emotion

Back 113

emotions fall into categories outlined by a set of feelings that are the same across cultural and special lines

Front 114

vector and circumplex models

Back 114

types of dimensional theories of emotion that look at emotion as a continuum of valence and arousal

Front 115

vector model

Back 115

different levels of intensity (valence) to show how positive or negative the stimulus to which you are reacting

Front 116

circumplex model

Back 116

arousal and valence plotted on a quadrants and tracks emotion based on the combination of the two

Front 117

left

Back 117

this half of the face is more spontaneously expressive

Front 118

production, comprehension or both of language prosody

Back 118

damage to the right hemisphere can affect_____

Front 119

valence hypothesis

Back 119

posits that right hemisphere is for negative emotions and left hemisphere is for positive emotions

Front 120

increased cortisol (stress hormone)
-evidence for right hemisphere bias for negative emotions

Back 120

right prefrontal cortex bias correlated with______

Front 121

amygdala

Back 121

plays a major role in mediating emotions via widespread inputs (afferents) and
outputs (efferents).

Front 122

high road of emotional processing

Back 122

-thalamcortical-amygdala pathway to process emotion (fearful stimuli)
-influenced by social and personal decision making processes and can reflect culture-specific emotional responses.
-interpretive and conscious evaluation/meaning and personal significance of a stimulus/event
-takes
somewhat longer, but allows complex, contextualized processing
of stimuli followed by conscious, deliberate responding

Front 123

low road of emotional processing

Back 123

-goes straight to amygdala and bypasses visual processing
-fast pathway from sensory receptor to thalamus to the amygdala, bypassing the cortex and enabling rapid, automatic, unconscious reactions to the broad outlines of potentially dangerous stimuli.

Front 124

emotion without awareness

Back 124

-flashing fearful eyes for 17 ms increases amygdal activity even when patient doesnt think they saw a face
-in blindsight patients, even when face is not perceives, still activation in amygdala

Front 125

-controls better identify the word if it is emotional
-patients with amygdal damage show no such proclivity for emotional words

Back 125

-this occurs when target words in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task are emotional

Front 126

emotional stroop task

Back 126

-emotional words take longer to say color or do the task because it draws attention away from task at hand
-neutral and positive words take similar time to perform task
-patients with amygdal damage do not show this difference in timing

Front 127

sleep deprivation

Back 127

-gives rise to more amygdal activation when viewing negative pictures than normal
-This is likely due to a decrease in functional connectivity from mPFC regions exerting top-down control of emotional responses

Front 128

emotional oddball

Back 128

-Participants must detect rarely-occurring targets (e.g.,the blue circle), while occasionally being distracted by negative or neutral images.
-

Front 129

dorsal

Back 129

these attentional control regions are suppressed with
emotional stimuli in emotional oddball task

Front 130

ventral

Back 130

these attentional control regions are suppressed with target stimuli in emotional oddball task

Front 131

ACC

Back 131

If emotional pictures are the targets, ________ activation doubles indicating convergence of attentional and
emotional processing

Front 132

better retention of explicit memories

Back 132

moderate levels of emotional arousal (most often fear based) at time of an event lead to______________

Front 133

epinephrine and cortisol

Back 133

pathways that lead to better retention of memories with emotional arousal because they affect consolidation

Front 134

propranolol (a beta-adrenergic blocker)

Back 134

administering this reduces the memory enhancement due to emotional stimuli.

Front 135

MTL structures (including the amygdala)

Back 135

functionally connected during encoding of emotional memories

Front 136

amygdala, entorhinal cortex, and hippocampus

Back 136

-correlation between these structures when shown emotional stimuli
-if these are activated, there is a better chance the stimulus will be remembered

Front 137

empathy

Back 137

carries the sense of feeling the feelings of others

Front 138

theory of mind

Back 138

is often used
to highlight the idea that we
normally have complex
metacognitive understandings
of our own minds as well as
the minds of others.

Front 139

mentalizing

Back 139

refers to that, when we have a well-developed Theory
of Mind, we understand ourselves and others not just as sensory objects but also as subjective beings with mental states
-exercising theory of mind

Front 140

intentionality

Back 140

refers to how our minds and mental states are
always ’about something else’ in a way that physical objects are not. Our thoughts always have an object.

Front 141

A theory if mind

Back 141

developed by baron-cohen
-named TOM and is composed of 4 skills
--TOMM, ID, EDD, SAM

Front 142

TOMM Theory of mind module

Back 142

contains the complex rules of social cognition we have since age 4 (ie, fool, deceive etc)
-knowledge of mental states used to understand and predict self and other

Front 143

ID (intentionality detector)

Back 143

-we can learn that other creatures have cognition
-allows us to perceive intention and purpose in biological and non-biological movement.

Front 144

EDD (eye direction detector)

Back 144

-used in TOMM
-because we are drawn to eyes, and use this to determine the direction of the gaze

Front 145

SAM (shared attention mechanism)

Back 145

-combines input from ID and EDD to share attentional focus with others
-understand you are sharing the attention with same object

Front 146

evidence for feeling what we see

Back 146

-The same somatosensory
areas responded whether a
person was watching a video
of someone’s face getting
touched or if their own was
touched
-The mere sight of what is happening to the people around us alters our own feelings and behavior.
-looking at shackled fingers reduce time to move fingers

Front 147

in frontal and parietal lobes of macaques

Back 147

mirror neurons location

Front 148

mirror neuron system

Back 148

-collection of cortical neurons that allow humans to understand the intentions of others from observation of their actions
-these will respond in monkeys to watching someone pick up food with hands, but not with pliers since that is not normal for them

Front 149

superior temporal interacts with parietal
frontal interacts with parietal

Back 149

distribution of mirror neurons (what 3 regions interact?)

Front 150

intention detection

Back 150

mirror neurons can distinguish between action recognition and this
-context matters

Front 151

intention condition

Back 151

Actions embedded in contexts yielded a
significant increase in activation in the posterior part of the inferior
frontal gyrus and the adjacent sector of ventral premotor cortex

Front 152

superior temporal sulcus (STS)

Back 152

-activates when attending to biological movement
-suggests this regions activates for body actions that are goal oriented and meaningful

Front 153

congenitally deaf

Back 153

the STS activates more to sign language for________ than controls

Front 154

STS

Back 154

-registers eye and eyelike movements
-the more complex gaze involve connections between this and parietal lobe areas (especially intraprietal sulcus IPS)

Front 155

STS and IPS

Back 155

have connections with subcortical structures to
register the social and emotional significance of gaze.

Front 156

amygdala

Back 156

responds more for threatening faces of direct gaze versus averted gaze

Front 157

ventromedial prefrontal cortex, the left superior frontal gyrus, the cingulate gyrus, and the caudate nucleus

Back 157

networks for shared attention

Front 158

looking and pointing

Back 158

helps create triadic interactions (shared attention)

Front 159

mPFC

Back 159

activates when seeing someone feel pain
-when med students take the patients perspective when diagnosing illness

Front 160

mind reading

Back 160

-key social skill
-ability to read another's intention
- mPFC activates when trying to 'psych out' the opponent
-

Front 161

DMPFC and precuneous

Back 161

activate when we think about social relationships while watching two people interact

Front 162

frontal and parietal

Back 162

these areas both contribute to these TOM modules, explaining why humans can mentalize