Cmst 154 Persuasion Mid-Term

Front 1

Heuristic Message Processing

Back 1

shortcuts to make decisions and process info

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7 Heuristics Messages

Back 2

1. Fixed-action Patterns
2. Trigger Feature
3. Mimics
4. Click, whirr
5. Judgment heuristics
6. Contrast principle
7. Controlled responding

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Fixed-action Patterns

Back 3

-involve intricate sequences of behavior that occur in virtually the same fashion and in the same order every time (Ex: Chicks cheep, mother nurtures)

Front 4

Trigger Feature

Back 4

often just one tiny aspect of the total stimulus which sets off a predictable response (Ex: Cheeping sound from chick)

Front 5

Mimics

Back 5

copy the trigger feature of the animals in an attempt to trick these animals into mistakenly playing the right behavior tapes at the wrong time (Ex: Grouper Fish and Saber Tooth Fish

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click, whirr

Back 6

humans tend to respond in the same way animals do; that is, with the predictable response to a specific stimulus

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judgment heuristics

Back 7

shortcuts that allow for simplified thinking works well most of the time but leaves us open to occasional, costly mistakes

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contrast principle

Back 8

if the 2nd item is fairly different from the first, we tend to see it as more different than it actually is

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controlled responding

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reacting on the basis of thorough analysis of all information (making a decision after having all the info)

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4 Reasons for studying persuasion

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1. becoming an effective persuader is helpful
2. persuasion as a field of study fulfills a knowledge function
3. by understanding the process of persuasion, you will be better equipped to deal with persuasive situations
4. you will come to understand what persuasion really is, not what it is perceived to be.

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Pure Persuasion

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includes clear-cut cases of persuasion on which people would agree

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Borderline Persuasion

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incorporates cases of persuasion that lie at the periphery of what is normally considered social influence

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5 Persuasion Criteria

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1. intentionality
2. effects
3. degree of free will
4. symbolic action
5. interpersonal vs. intrapersonal communication

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intentionality

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focuses on the source's intention for communicating

pure: source-based where intent on the part of the source is necessary

borderline: suggest persuasion can occur absent of intent. People don't know what they intend. Situation may include individuals the source never intended to receive the message. difficult to ascertain one's intent.

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effects

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focuses on the outcome of the communication

pure: receiver-based orientation where a successful outcome is necessary (implies a linear view of persuasion)

borderline: suggests persuasion occurs even if the attempt is unsuccessful or only somewhat successful.
-tend to view persuasion as a process rather than a product
-difficult to measure persuasive outcome

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degree of free will

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focuses on the extent to which an individual feels coerced or pressured to conform

pure: receiver-based orientation where individual feels free to determine how to act

borderline: considers some degree of coercion acceptable
-what one considers coercive, another may not

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symbolic action

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focuses on the type of communication that can be construed as persuasion

pure: symbolic expression, including language and other meaning-laden acts (non-verbal)

borderline: incorporates a variety of cues as means of persuasion such as aromas, involuntary actions, and physical attributes (Ex: auntie anne's pretzel smell/george winking due to grapefruit in the eye from Seinfeld/tall=leader)

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interpersonal vs. intrapersonal communication

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focuses on the # of individuals involved in persuasion

pure: suggests two or more people are necessary for persuasion to occur (interpersonal)

borderline: incorporates self-persuasion as a possibility (interpersonal)

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4 Persuasive Responses

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1. Response-changing process
2. Response-shaping process
3. Response-reinforcing process
4. Response-extinguishing process

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response-changing process

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changing one's attitudes, beliefs, or behavior

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response-shaping process

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creating new attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors not yet held

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response-reinforcing process

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strengthening attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors already held

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response-extinguishing process

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eliminating attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors already held

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Persuasion (definition)

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-involves 1 or more persons who are engaged in the activity of creating, reinforcing, modifying, or extinguishing beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations and/or behaviors w/in the constraints of a given communication context

-the potential for persuasion exists in most human communication, but not in all human behavior (e.g. breathing, sleeping, etc)

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Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

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-suggests there are 2 routes to persuasion; a central route and a peripheral route

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Persuasion through a central route

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Requires motivation, comprehension, and careful thought (processing) about the content of the message.

Tends to be longer lasting and more resistant to change

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Persuasion through the peripheral route

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occurs through cues rather than through careful consideration of the message

short term and highly subject to change

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Attitude

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a learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward some attitude object

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4 attitude characteristics

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1. attitudes are learned
2. attitudes direct behavior (to a large extent)
3. attitudes have an evaluative component
4. attitudes are directed towards things

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Attitude measurement

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-attitudes are difficult to measure bc they are in people's heads and therefore cannot be directly observed
-attitudes are often measured through self-reports
-scales are often used to measure attitudes

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Likert scales

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-consist of declarative statements followed by a continuum of choices ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree"
-numbers are associated with each response category are then averaged to estimate one's attitude

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Semantic Differential scales

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-consists of bipolar adjectives separated by a number of spaces
-numbers associated with each space are then averaged to estimate one's attitude

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Visually oriented scales

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-consist of some type of visual representation to approximate attitude such as faces and thermometers
-useful for respondents who are less well educated or otherwise unfamiliar

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Measurement difficulties

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-social desirability
-non-attitudes
-acquiescence bias
-mindfulness

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social desirability

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respond in a politically correct manner

Front 36

non-attitudes

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make up attitude

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acquiescence bias

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agreement tendency

Front 38

mindfulness

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must be aware of attitudes

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Theory of reasoned action

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attitude toward, and subjective norms associated with the behavior predict one's intent to engage in the behavior; one's intent is a good predictor of actual behavior

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Psychological consistency

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individuals motivated to maintain consistency both internally and externally.

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6 steps to resolving inconsistency

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1. denial
2. bolstering
3. differentiation
4. transcendence
5. modifying
6. communicating

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denial

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deny or ignore inconsistency

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bolstering

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rationalizing or making excuses

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differentiation

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separating or distinguishing inconsistent attitudes

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transcendence

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focus on larger or higher level issue

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modifying

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altering one or both attitudes

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communicating

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convincing others that this inconsistency is ok

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balance theory

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-individuals try to maintain a balanced state between 3 or more entities in a relationship
-can also be used to explain use of celebrities

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4 ways to create commitment

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1. brand loyalty
2. cognitive dissonance
3. selective exposure
4. counter-attitudinal advocacy

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Brand Loyalty

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refers to methods used to maintain consistent behavior among consumers (e.g. essays, coupons, frequent user programs)
-these tactics work well bc they get consumers to actively commit and consistent behavior follow

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cognitive dissonance

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-after making a decision, consumers worry about whether the choice made was the right one, and thus experience dissonance (linked to buyer's remorse)
-the amount or magnitude of dissonance one experiences is positively related to the amount of freedom one had in making the choice
-since dissonance is uncomfortable, we try to reduce it

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Selective Exposure

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-refers to the process where we seek confirming info. and avoid disconfirming info
-studies suggest that while individuals do seek confirming information, they do not necessarily avoid disconfirming info.

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Counter-attitudinal advocacy

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-process of having an individual create a message advocating a position that goes against existing attitudes
-some attitude shift will occur as the individual reconciles inconsistency

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Conditions under which committment is most effective (4)

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1. active
2. public
3. effortful
4. freely chosen

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active (condition for commitment)

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engaging in some way (ex: essay contests)

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public (condition for commitment

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made in front of others

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effortful (condition for commitment)

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difficult to achieve (ex: initiations)

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freely chosen (condition for commitment)

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made without reservation

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two strategies to obtain commitment

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1. foot in the door
2. lowball technique

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foot-in-the-door

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begins with a small request in order to gain eventual compliance with related larger requests

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lowball technique

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make an offer that cannot be refused. once agreed to, even removing something positive (or adding something negative) will not affect commitment

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growing legs to stand on

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the reason for initial commitment leads to other reasons for commitment
-even when the initial reason is eliminated, commitment remains

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credibility

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-judgments made by a perceiver concerning the believability of a communicator
-there is no objective credibility; it depends on the perception of the receiver
-credibility is multidimensional
-credibility is determined by the communicator situation or context
-credibility is dynamic

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3 primary dimensions of credibility

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1. expertise
2. trustworthiness
3. goodwill

*Must have all 3

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expertise

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-the extent to which a source is perceived to be knowledgeable about a particular topic

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trustworthiness

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the extent to which a source can be trusted to provide accurate information

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goodwill

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the extent to which a source seems to care for the receiver (e.g. empathy)

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4 secondary dimensions of credibility

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1. extroversion (dynamism)
2. composure
3. sociability
4. inspiring

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extroversion

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the extent to which the source is perceived as energetic, animated, and/or enthusiastic

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composure

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the extent to whihc the source is perceived to be calm and collected

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sociability

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the extent to whcih the source is perceived to be friendly and likeable

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inspiring

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the extent to whcih the source is perceived to have a positive influence on others

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Absolute sleeper effect

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message from a low credibility source may increase in persuasiveness over time, compared to a message from a high credibility (this occurs bc the receiver disassociates the message from the source)

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Relative Sleeper Effect

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Both message effects decrease over time but the high credibility message decreases more than the low credibility message

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Impression Management Theory

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focuses on the ways in which individuals (and organizations) attempt to manage their self-image

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facework

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where one's face is his/her social standing in the eyes of others

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positive face

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desire to be perceived in a certain way

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negative face

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the desire to be autonomous

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Liking

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people do things for you just because they like you

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6 components of liking

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1. attractiveness
2. similarity
3. compliments
4. familiarity
5. cooperation
6. association

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attractiveness

Back 81

relatively more attractive people are better liked

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similarity

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appearing similar to others will increase liking

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compliments

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we like to hear nice things about ourselves and like those who provide them

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familiarity

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the more familiar something is the more we will like it

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cooperation

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we tend to like those who cooperate with us

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association

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links to good things reflects positvely on us.

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Reciprocation (Pre-giving)

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seek compliance by acting nice or doing favors for another in advance

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Rule of Reciprocation

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We will repay in kind what we have taken even when we did not ask for the girft, don't like the gift, and even wehn we dont care for the giver
-when someone gives us something we feel indebted and thus carry a burden until we have repaid the favor
-when pregiving is construed as a bribe or pressure tactic, persuasion decreases

Front 89

6 Sequential Strategies

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1. Pre-giving
2. Lowball
3. Foot-in-the-door
4. Door-in-the-face
5. That's not all
6. Bate & Switch

Front 90

Foot-in-the-Door

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involves a small request followed by a larger request (which is the goal of the persuader)

Front 91

Self-perception theory

Back 91

-explains foot-in-the-door tactic
-suggests people learn about their attitudes by observing their behaviors
-people want to remain consistent

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Foot-in-the-Mouth effect

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responding "good" to the question, "how are you?"

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Door-in-the-Face

Back 93

begins with a large request that is turned down and followed by a more moderate request (the real goal of the persuader)

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5 DITF's

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1. perceptual contrast effect
2. Reciprocation (concessions)
3. self-presentation
4. social responsibility position
5. guilt-based account

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perceptual contrast effect

Back 95

the 2nd, more moderate request smaller than it really is when compared to the large initial request

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reciprocation (concessions)

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making a concession, like doing a favor, creates a sense of indebtedness. here, we also make a concession and accept the more moderate request

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self-presentation

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after refusing an offer individuals are concerned they might be viewed negatively and thus accept the 2nd request (externally-based)

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social responsibility

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individuals are more likely to agree when the request is seen as socially appropriate (internally based)

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guilt-based account

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individuals try to reduce guilt from declining first request, and thus afree to the second

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Optimal Conditions for door-in-the-face (5)

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1. first request must be large enough to be turned down, but not so large as to appear incredulous
2. pro-social requests rather than self-serving requests are more effective
3. delay between requests should be brief
4. requests must come from the same person
5. works best on "exchange oriented" people

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That's Not All

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-strategy where add-ons are thrown into the deal at no extra charge
-effectiveness may be explained though the norm of reciprocity as well as the contrast effect

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Bait-and-Switch

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offers a great deal that is unavailable (sold out), but individuals become committed and purchase something more expensive

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norms

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refer to expectations held by a group of people about what begaviors or opinions are right or wrong, good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable, etc.

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explicit norms

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refers to norms that are openly communicated

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implicit norms

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refers to norms that are not communicated

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Sherif and Asch studies

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Sherif-autkinetic effect
Asch-matching lines

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2 explanations for group influence

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1. informational influence
2. normative influence

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informational influence

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suggests conformity to a group occurs bc we want to be right (and we think the group is right)

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normative influence

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suggests conformity to a group occurs bc we want to be like (even if we think the group is wrong)

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Group Attractiveness

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relatively more attractive groups are more influential than relatively less attractive groups

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indoctrination

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we value groups more when initiation is severe

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identification

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we value groups whose members are similar to us in attitudes, values, behaviors, etc. Excessive identification may lead to negative consequences such as ethnocentrism and groupthink

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Communicator Characteristics: gender

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women are more likely to conform than are men

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Communicator Characteristics: Age

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teens are likely to conform to peer groups due to peer pressure

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Communicator Characteristics: Personality

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those most likely to conform
-low cognitive complexity
-low need for control
-high self-monitors
-high need for affiliation and group identification

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11 Conformity Explanations

Back 116

1. Group Locomotion Hypothesis
2. Social Comparison Theory
3. Consistency (balance) theory
4. Epistemological weighting hypothesis
5. hedonistic hypothesis
6. deindividuation
7. risky shift phenomenon
8. social proof
9. Werther effect
10. Scarcity
11. authority

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group locomotion hypothesis

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group members are motivated to achieve the group's goals

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social comparison theory

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we make judgments about ourselves through comparison to others.

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consistency (balance) theory

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it is uncomfortable to disagree with a group one finds attractive

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epistemological weighting hypothesis

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We gain knowledge through personal trial and observation. Those who weigh personal trial more, or less persuadable than those who weigh observation more (epistemolgy-how we know things)

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Hedonistic Hypothesis

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we conform to avoid pain and gain pleasure

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deindividuation

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-occurs when being in a group of people causes people to become less aware of themselves and less concerned
-individuals are thus more likely to behave in ways they would not if they were alone (e.g. lynch mobs, riots, etc.)

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risky shift phenomenon

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individuals make relatively riskier decisions when they are in groups as compared to when they are alone

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social proof

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suggest we determine what is correct by finding out what they do (look to others in time of uncertainty to see how to behave)

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Werther Effect

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after a highly publicized suicide, there is a spike in the # of suicides in that geographic area (has to do with social proof) people see others in same state of depression that they are in and commit suicide jsut as the others due
-also leads to higher rate of car/plane accidents in same area

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scarcity

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opportunities seem more valuable to us when they are less available. people do not like to have their freedom taken away

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limited numbers

Back 127

individuals tend to be more easily persuaded when quantities are in short supply

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time limit

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if behavior does not occur w/in a specified amount of time, the opportunity is lost
-newly scarce items are more profitable than items that have been scarce for a long time (Ex: Beanie Babies)

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authority

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obedience to authority (Milgrim)
-experiment designed to learn conditions under which obedience is most likely

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4 conditions based on victim immediacy

Back 130

1. remote feedback
2. voice feedback
3. proximity
4. touch proximity

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remote feedback

Back 131

learner could not be seen or hear (at 300 volts he pounded on the wall)

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voice feedback

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voice protests were introduced

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proximity

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learner was placed 1.5 ft. from the learner in the same room

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touch-proximity

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learner received shock only when his hand was on a shock plate (at 150 volts the teacher had to force the learner's hand onto the plate