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230 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What four parts is the diencephalon divided into
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epithalamus
thalamus subthalamus hypothalamus |
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The Epithalamus: Pineal Gland- what is it?
secrets? imp in regulation of? pineal tumor may cause? |
- an endocrine organ involved with reproductive cycles( in other species)
- secrets melatonin( hormone which inhibits production of reproductive cells in darkness (mating season) - important in regulation of circadian rhythms -sleep-wake cycles (in humans) - pineal tumor may cause precocious puberty |
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What is found inferior to the thalamus and lateral to the hypothalamus
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subthalamus
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The subthalamus contains what
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part of the red nucleus and substantia nigra
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what nuclei does the subthalamus contain
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subthalmic nuclei
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damage to subthalamic nuclei could lead to
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abnormal movement
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the subthalamic nuclei is interconnected with
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the basal ganglia
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What does the thalamus look like
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large egg shaped nuclear mass
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what is the thalamus
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sensory gateway to cortex except taste info
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all sensory pathways _____ in the thalamus
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relay
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anatomical loops comprising ______(3) invovle thalamic relay
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cerebellar, basal ganglionic, and limbic pathways
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the various systems utilize separate portions of the thalamus- subdivided into
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series of nuclei based on location and function
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List the 4 types of relay nuclei in the thalamus
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1. specific relay nuclei
2. association nuclei 3. non-specific nuclei 4. subcortical nuclei |
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the specific relay nuclei receive what? project where?
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receive well-defined bundles of fibers and projects to particular functional areas of the cortex
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the sensory relay nuclei include (3)
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1. the VPL/VPM: output to the somatosensory cortex
VPL: somatosensory input from the body (STT, ML) VPM: somatosensory input from the head (solitary, TTT) 2. the geniculate nuclei -lateral geniculate nucleus- visual system - medial geniculate nucleus- auditory system 3. the motor relay nuclei -input from the cerebellum and the basal ganglia and output to the motor and premotor cortex (VA, VL) |
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blood supply to the thalamus comes mostly from
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branches of the posterior cerebral artery (PCA)
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lesion, especially in the posterior thalamus can cause
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thalamic syndrome
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symptoms of thalamic syndrome:
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1. thalamic pain- triggered by somatosensory stimuli
2. loss of somatic sensation in the contralateral head and body - abolished discriminative tactile sensibility (hemianesthesia) - impaired position sense- sensory type ataxia |
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The hypothalamus interconnects with
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various components of the limbic system
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Interconnects with various
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visceral and somatic nuclei of the brainstem and spinal cord (via reticular formation)
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Function aspects of the hypothalamus:
involved in overall control of the |
autonomic nervous system
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list five things hypothalamus controls
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1. feeding and drinking behavior
2. temperature regulation 3. gut motility 4. sexual activity 5. emotional behavior |
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lesion of hypothalamus results in
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1. difficulty in maintaining body temperature
2. eating and drinking disorder -hyperphasia- gross overeating-obesity -aphagia- undereating- starvation -adipsia- drinking disorder (not drinking) 3. personality change -irritability and rage( abnormal emotional response- hypothalamic rage 4. sexual dysfunction (too much) 5. somnolence- sleepy |
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the internal capsule-what passes through the internal capsule
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both descending fibers from the cortex and ascending fibers from the thalamus pass through the internal capsule
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Boundaries:
laterally: Inferiorly: superiorly: |
laterally: lenticular nucleus
inferiorly: funnel down to the cerebral peduncles superiorly: fanning out into the corona radiata |
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list the five regions of the internal capsule
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1. anterior limb
2. posterior limb 3. genu 4. retrolenticular part 5. sublenticular part |
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the posterior limb carries what from what to what? contains?
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carry motor fibers from the thalamus to the motor/premotor cortex. contains corticospinal and corticobulbar fibers
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the posterior limb carries somatosensory fibers from ....to....
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from the VPL and VPM of thalamus to the postcentral gyrus
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Genu region contains fibers to
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the motor/premotor cortex
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genu is imp in the integration of
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cerebellum, basal ganglia, and premotor cortex
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lesion to genu cause
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significant deficit in motor control
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the retrolenticular part interconnects the
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thalamus to the parietal-occipital-temporal association cortex.
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disruption to the retrolenticular part causes
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aphasia
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the sublenticular part contains
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optic radiation to the visual cortex from the LGN and the auditory radiation fibers from the MGN to the auditory cortex
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blood supply to the internal capsule is mainly by the
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lenticulostriate arteries
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posterior limb lesion results in
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contralateral hemiparesis (weakness) and contralateral hemianesthesia ( loss of sensation
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retrolenticular or sublenticular lesion results in (3)
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1. visual deficit- homonymous hemianopsia
2. minor auditory deficit 3. aphasia |
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Input to the corticospinal tract comes from (4)
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1. primary motor cortex
2. somatosensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus 3. premotor cortex 4. supplementary motor area |
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the corticospinal tract has direct projection from...to...
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pyramidal cells in the motor areas in the cortex to the SC
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what 2 tracts is the corticospinal tract divided into
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1. lateral corticospinal tract
2. anterior corticospinal tract |
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the lateral corticospinal tract makes up what percentage of the corticospinal tract and do what in the caudal medulla
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85% of fibers that decussate in the caudal medulla
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what is the pathway of the lateral corticospinal tract
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motor area-posterior limb of internal capsule- fibers decussate in caudal medulla (pyramidal decussation)- terminate in the ventral horn of the SC or in the brainstem reticular formation
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the anterior corticospinal tract makes up what part of the corticospinal tract- do they decussate?
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15-20% of corticospinal fibers that do not decussate
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the anterior corticospinal tract descend to the____ and terminate on____of the _____
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descend to the SC and terminate on motor or interneurons of the ventral horn
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the corticobulbar tract direction projection from.....to.....
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from the pyramidal cells in the motor areas of cortex to the brainstem motor nuclei (V, VII, IX, X, XI, XII motor nuclei)
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what is the pathway of corticobulbar tract
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motor areas- posterior limb of the internal capsule- synapse on motor nuclei in pons, medulla, and SC
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corticobulbar tract has unilateral or bilateral innervation? (exception....
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bilateral innervation. (exception-facial motor nucleus for the lower face)
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components of upper motor neurons:
- neurons in.... -axons that.... |
- neurons in motor, premotor, or supplementary motor cortex
- axons that descend from these neurons and end on lower motor neurons, either directly or by way of an interneuron |
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what are the four components of lower motor neurons?
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1. alpha motor neurons
2. ventral root fibers arising from alpha motor neurons 3. myoneural junction 4. muscle fiber |
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what is myoneural junction?
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point where alpha efferents synapse on the muscle.
nerve fiber divides into many branches. |
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what constitues an upper motor neuron lesion?
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any interuption of connections between the cortex and the motor nuclei in the brainstem or SC.- before synapse
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UMN lesion above decussation of pyramids...what kind of symptoms (contra, ipsi)
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contralateral
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UMN lesion below level of decussation
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ipsilateral effects
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bilateral lesion of SC
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involvement in all descending motor fibers below the level of the lesion
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what are the five behavioral signs of UMN lesion
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1. pareisis or paralysis
2. hyperreflexia 3. hypertonia 4. spasticity 5. UMN lesions invovling speech mechanism can result in spastic dysarthria |
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what is hyperreflexia
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increased reflex
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what is hypertonia
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increased muscle tone
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whta is spasticity
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hyperreflexia and hypertonaia (bilateral lesion)
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what are the three behavioral signs for LMN lesion
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1. flaccid paralysis
2. atrophy 3. LMN lesions invovling muscles of speech production will result in flaccid dysarthria |
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what is flaccid paralysis
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muscles supplied become limp because impulses cannot reach the muscle
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what is atrophy
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muscles eventually shrink and are replaced by fat
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the basal ganglia referes to a group of...
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subcortical nuclei
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BG refers to those structures that cause...syndromes when damaged
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extrapyramidal
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what are the 5 components included in the BG- 3 real...2. not really
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1. caudate nucleus
2. putamen 3. globus pallidus 4. subthalamic nucleus 5. substantia nigra |
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caudate nucleus+putamen=
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striatum
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putamen+globus pallidus=
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lenticular nucleus
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the substantia nigra is at the level of
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midbrain
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substantia nigra contains
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closely packed pigmented neurons that produce dopamine
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when substantia nigra is damanged, it results in
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parkinsonism
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what are the five major fissures and lobes of the cerebellum
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1. posterolateral fissure
2. flocculonodular lobe 3. primary fissure 4. anterior lobe 5. posterior lobe |
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what does the posterolateral fissure do
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separates the flocculonodular lobe from the body of the cerebellum
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what two portions is the flocculonodular lobe broken up into
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1. medial portion (nodulus)
2. lateral portion (flocculus) |
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what is the flocculonodular lobe involved in
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the maintenance of the equilibrium and coordination of eye movement
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what does the primary fissure do
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separates the anterior and posterior lobe
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what are the three longitudinal zones of the cerebellum
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1. vermis
2. intermediate zone (paravermal zone) 3. lateral zone |
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what attaches the cerebellum to the brainstem
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3 peduncles
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what are the names of the three peduncles
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1. superior cerebellar peduncle
2. middle cerebellar peduncle 3. inferior cerebellar peduncle |
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what does s. c. p. do
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carry efferents from the cerebellum to other parts of the brain
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what does mcp do
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carry afferents primarily from the pontine nuclei to the cerebellum
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what does icp do
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carry afferents from the SC and the brainstem to the cerebellum
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lesion of the vermal or paravermal zone of the cerebellum results in? primarily affects? causes?
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the anterior lobe syndrom which primarily affects the legs (ataxia)- causes postural instability
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lesion of hte lateral hemisphere of cerebellum results in? effects to which side of lesion?
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results in the neocerebellar syndrome. effects all ipsilateral to the side of the lesion.
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lesion to the flocculonodular lobe results in
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abnormal eye movement and loss of equilibrium
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what are the four symptoms of neocerebellar syndrome
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1. hypotonia and hyporeflexia
2. ataxia 3. intention tremor 4. ataxic dysarthria |
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what is hypotonia
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reduced muscle tone
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what is hyporeflexia
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reduced m. reflex
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what is ataxia
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lack of coordination of voluntary movements
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what is decomposition of movement
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errors in the timing of complex mulit-joint movment
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what is dysmetria
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inability to guage the range of movement- overshooting or undershooting targets
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what is adiadochokinesia
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impaired rapid, alternating movement. tatatata not smooth
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when does intention tremor occur and when does it get worse
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occurs during voluntary movement. worsens as the pt nears a target (corrective movement)
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what is ataxic dysarthria
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can't talk smooth. sounds drunk
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what is the principle circuit of the BG loop? starting at multiple cortical areas
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multiple cortical areas- basal ganglia- thalamus- one of hte cortical areas, especially the frontal lobe
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the BG is also interconnected between:
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- substantia nigra and striatum
- subthalamic nucleus and globus pallidus |
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damage to the BG results in
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movement disorders( dyskinesia)
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what two things to pts normally exhibit with damage to BG
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-involuntary movements
- disturbances/alterations of m. tone |
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what are 4 examples of involuntary movement
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1. tremor- shaking
2. chorea- quick, random, jerky 3. athetosis- slow riding movement 4. ballismus- wild flailing limb movement (don't need to memorize what they are) |
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what are two characteristics of disturbances/alteations of m. tone
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- increases tone (rigid)
- dystonia (disorder of the m. tone) (VF might open and close on their own) |
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what is the best known disease invovling the BG
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parkinson's disease
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what are the 3 symptoms of parkinson's disease
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1. a resting tremor
2. rigidity 3. difficulty in initiating voluntary movement |
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whta are three characteristics of a resting tremor
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1. present while resting
2. characteristicallly invovling the hands in a "pill-rolling" movement 3. diminishes during voluntary movement and increases druing emotional stress |
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what is rigidity caused by
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increased tone in all muscles
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what is bradykinesia
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slow movement with reduced range
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what is hypokinesia/akinesia
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reduced/few movements (reduced blinking of eyes) (not moving arms while walking)
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why is the olfactory system connected with emotion
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smell triggers memory
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t/f the olfactory system does not go through the thalamus before the cortex
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true
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olfactory receptor cells are called
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chemoreceptors
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olfactory receptor cells are located in
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the olfactory epithelium (in the walls and roof of nasal cavity)
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axons of the receptors collect into
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the olfactory fila
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olfactory fila end in the
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olfactory bulb
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projections from the olfactory bulb form the
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olfactory tract
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fibers of the later olfactory tract go to the (2)
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- primary olfactory cortex
- amygdala |
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then, the olfactory info is projected to (3)
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- hypothalamus
- limib structures - thalamus |
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what is anosmia
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loss of ability ot smell
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how is anosmia diagnostically useful
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in case of tumors growing on the base of the skull
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what are sensorineural olfactory deficits caused by
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head injuries or neurodegenerative disease
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uncinate seizures? may begin with?
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seizures originating in the vicinity of the uncus. may begin with an olfactory hallucination
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what are the five parts of the limbic system
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1. cingulate gyrus
2. parahippocampal gyri 3. hippocampus 4. amygdala 5. septal area (near uncus) |
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what are three parts that are very closely connected with the limbic system
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1. hypothalamus
2. olfactory area 3. the tracts that link these areas (fornix- major output pathway) |
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where is the hippocampus found- what lobe
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temporal lobe
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anterior end at the? posteror end near the?
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anteror end at the amygdala and posterior end near the splenium of hte corpus callosum
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the hippocampus has prominent role in
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learning and memory
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amygdala is
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a collection of nuclei lying beneath the uncus of the temporal lobe
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amygdala receives
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a great deal of sensory input in a highly processed form
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where does the amygdala receive info from
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- olfactory bulb
- frontal and temporal cortex |
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amygdala has output to
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the septal area and hypothalamus
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what is the funciton of amygdala
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- influence drive-related behavior patterns via its connection to the hypothalamus
- emotions/emotional responses |
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electrical stimulation of amygdala often causes
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fear accompanied by all its normal autonomic manifestations
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bilateral damage to the hippocampus results in
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anterograde amnesia for declarative memory (impaired learning and memory)
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what is anteriograde memory
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new memory
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damage to the mammillary bodies results in
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Korsakoff's Psychosis
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what is K.P. caused by
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chronic alcoholism
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what is KP
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inablity to form new memory
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what is KP also called
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amnestic confabulatory syndrome (make up the answer)
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bilateral temporal lobe damage results in
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Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
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what is KBS
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absence of emotional reaction, hypersexual, increased attention to sensory stimuli- no memory
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what is the gray matter of the majority of the cerebral hemispher.
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neocortex
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neocortex makes up 95% of what
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total cortical area of human
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what is paleocortex
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some restricted parts of the base of the telencephalon(olfactory areas)
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what is archicortex
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hippocampal formation
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what is the neocortex made up of (2)
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1. stellate cells
2. pyramidal cells |
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what are stellate cells
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small multipolar neurons. principal interneurons of the neocortex
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pyramidal cells are principal....?
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output neurons.
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in pyramidal cells, whawt ascend to the cortical surface
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apical dendrites
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dendritic spines on teh apical dendrites is the? may be invovled in?
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preferential site of synapti contact maybe invovled in learning.
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what are the 3 types of cortical connections
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1. association fiber
2. commissureal fibers 3. projection fibers |
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association fibers connect fibers to/from other cortical sites....
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within the same hemisphere
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commissural fibers connect fibers to/from other cortical sites
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in the contrallateral hemisphere
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projection fibers connnect fibers to/from
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subcortical sites. most descend thru the internal capsule
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what are three examples of commissural fibers
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1. corpus callosum
2. anterior commissure 3. posterior commissure |
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what is corpus callosum
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the largest fiber bundle. interconnect two cerebral hemispheres.
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anterior portion of corpus callosum is
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genu
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middle portion is
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body
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posterior portion is
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splenium
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anterior commissure interconnects...
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parts of the temporal lobes (esp. middle and inferior temporal gyri)
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posterior commissure if found...connects...
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in midbrain, connecting pretectal areas
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what are 5 examples of association fibers
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1. superior longitudinal fasciculus (arcuate fasciculus)
2. superior occipitofrontal fasciculus 3. inferior occipitofrontal fasciculus 4. unicinate fasciculus 5. cingulate fasciculus (cingulum) |
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superior longitudinal fasciculus (arcuate fasciculus) connects..
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the frontal lobe to the parietal, occipital and temporal lobes
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superior occipitofrontal fasciculus connects...parrallel to ...
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connects the occipital and the frontal lobe. parallel to the corpus callosum
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inferior occipitofrontal fasciculus is from...
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the frontal lobe, thru the temporal lobe, to the occiptial lobe
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uncinate fasciculus is part of... interconnects...
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part of the inferior occipitofrontal fasciculus. interconnects the orbital cortex and the anterior temporal cortex.
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cingulate fasciculus (cingulum) runs... associated with...
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runs within the cigulate gyrus. associated with the limbic system
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in cortical mapping, map the cortex based on
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anatomical differences
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cortical mapping often correlates with
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a specific function
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what is the name of the terminology that has been used widely and it divides the cortex into how many areas
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brodmanns' terminology. 46 areas
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what are the four numbers of the frontal lobe
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4, 6, 44, 45
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#4...
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precentral gyrus, paracentral lobule. aka primary motor area
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#6...
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superior and middle frontal gyri, precentral gyrus. aka premotor area
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#44, 45
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opercular and triagular parts of inferior frontal gyrus. aka broca's area (on the left)
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what are the numbers of the parietal lobe
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1,2,3, 5,7,39,40
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#1,2,3,
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postcentral gyrus, paracentral lobule. aka primary somatosensory area
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#5,7
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superior parietal lobule. aka somatosensory association area
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#39
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inferior parietal lobule. aka angular gyrus
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#40
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inferior parietal lobule. supramarginal gyrus
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what are the numbers for occiptial lobe
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17, 18, 19
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17...
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banks of calcarine sulcus. aka primary visual area
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18, 19
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surrounding 17. aka. visual association area
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what are the numbers for the temporal lobe
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41,42,22
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41..
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transverse temporal gyri. aka primary auditory area
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42..
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transverse temporal gyri...auditory association area.
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22..
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superior temporal gyrus. auditory association area. posterior portion= wernicke's area
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what are the two divisions of the neocortex
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1. primary cortices
2. association cortices |
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association cortex is divided into..
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-unimodal association area
-multimodal association area |
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what is the unimodal association area
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adjacent to a primary area. elaboration of the business of hte primary area. only visual info.
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a multimodal association area is...
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-inferior parietal lobule, portion of the frontal and temporal lobes.
-respond to muliple sensory modalities - integration of various info- concerned with high-level intellectual function |
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primary somatosensory cortices is made up of what numbers? occupies? what type of organization?
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1,2,3. occupies almost the entire postcentral gyrus. somatotopic organization
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secondary somatosensory cortex is located...much of it is buried in...
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located in the parietal operculum. much of it is buried in the lateral sulcus.
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primary visual cortex is area...? located...? also called?
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area 17. on medial surface of the occipital lobe. also called the striate cortex.
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the two-part visual association cortices are area...? concerned with?
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18, 19, surrounding the area...17. concerned with the movements of objects and the color of objects.
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additional visual association area in the
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temporal lobe
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what is the area of hte primary auditory cortex...on the....what kind of organization?
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area 41. on the superior surface of the temporal lobe. tonotopic organization.
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what area receives infor from area 41 and MGN?
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area 42
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auditory association cortex is what area? which forms much of? damage may cause?
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area 22. which forms much of hte superior temporal gyrus. damage may cause severe langauge problems (Wernicke's aphasia- storage of phonological form of the words.)
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the inferior parietal lobule is what areas? ....association cortex?
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39 and 40. heteromodal association gyrus
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area 39 is
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angular gyrus (storage for graphemic form of words) cannot read or write
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area 40 is..
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supramarginal gyrus
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associationes(3)
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visual, auditory, sensory
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lesion to the inferior parietal lobule causes
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language impairments
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primary motor cortex is what area in the what? movements of? lesions:
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area 4, in the precentral gyrus. movements of a discrete muscle or small groups of muscles. lesion: spastic paralysis.
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premotor area is what area? anterior to the...? initiation of?
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area 6. anterior to the precentral gyrus. initiation of motor behavior.
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supplementary motor area is what area? (more specific) concerned with?
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area 6 in the medial extension of area 6. concerned with the initiation of speech- can cause mutism
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which hemisphere is language dominant?
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left.
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some left handed people may be...
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l dominant, r dominant, bilaterally represented
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what is aphasia
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inability to use language following brain damage. acquired disorder.
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what is the name of traditionally -defined langage areas
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perisylvian language area
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what are the 4 types of aphasia
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1. Broca's aphasia
2. Wernicke's Aphasia 3. Conduction Aphasia 4. Global Aphasia |
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lesion in Broca's area is what areas?
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opercular (44), triagnular (45) of the inferior frontal gyrus.
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5 characteristics of Broca's Aphasia
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1. non-fluent(impaired prosody)
2. relatively preserved comprehension but impaired language production 3. effortfull, slow, halting speech. 4. telegraphic speech (omission of function words) 5. often grammatical difficulty in formulating language |
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Lesion in Wernicke's Area is what area?
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posteior part of the superior temporal gyrus (area 22)
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3 characteristics of Wernicke's aphasia
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1. comprehension difficulty with fluent-sounding output (normal prosody)
2. paraphasias - substitution of one word for another 3. speech is empty in content and often defective in the choice of words or the sequence. |
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conduction aphasia was traditionally thought to result from lesion in which fasciculus
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arcuate
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lesion in the arcuate fasciculus would disconnect what
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wernicke's area from broca's area
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conduction aphasia may involve lesion in which gyrus
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supramarginal gyrus (40)
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what are two characteristics of conduction aphasia
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1. fluent but difficulty in repetition
2. often produce paraphasias which resemble the target word but not entirely correct |
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global aphasia is a large lesion involving...
has impaired...(3) |
most of the perisylvian language area
- comprehension, production, and repetition |
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is there cognition problems with aphasia
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no cognition problems, can make decisions. can't talk correctly
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large lesion of the right parietal lobe leads to (2)
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- difficulty with spatial orientation (on opposite side)
- hemineglect |
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other deficits that accompany damage to the parietal-occiptial- temporal association cortex (2)
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- agnosis- the inability to recognize objects using a given sense of despite the intact sensory perception
- apraxia- oral/verbal apraxia often results from Left frontal lesion while apraxia of limb may result from left inferior parietal damage. difficulty or inability to perform motor activity voluntarily. esp. on command. |
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lesion of the dorsal and lateral prefrontal cortex involved in working memory leads to
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problems with planning, problem-solving and attention
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lesion to the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex associated with teh limbic system leads to
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impulsivity, difficulty suppressing inappropriate responses and action (disinhibition)
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prefrontal lobotomy leads to
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decreased concentration, initiation, spontaneity, abstract reasoning, and attentions pan, impatient, disinhibited
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left hemisphere is dominant for (3)
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- langage
- mathematical ability - ability to solve problems in a logical fashion |
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right hemisphere is superior in (4)
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- musical skills
- recognition of faces - visual/spacial processing - there is some rudimentary language ability in teh right hemisphere *wholistic processing |
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disconnection syndromes leads to
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alexia without agraphia (pure word deafness)
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what is alexia without agraphia
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difficulty reading without writing difficulty
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alexia without agraphia is almost always accompanied by
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right homonymous hemianopsia (rt. visual field loss)
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stroke in the Left PCA can lead to
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destruction of the left visual cortex and the splenium of the corpus callosum
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in alexia without agraphia...left language area is cut off from
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all visual input
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does a person with alexia without agraphia have verbal and written langauge
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yes
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hwo is the person's angular gyrus
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is intact but doesn't get any input
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