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1159 Cards in this Set
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Cow Gestation |
-280 days on average, 9-10 months |
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Factors affecting bovine gestation length
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-Sex of the fetus |
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Calving Interval
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-12 months is really not realistic, 13 months is more appropriate |
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Bovine Placenta
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-Cotyledonary
--chorion interdigitations are limited to cotyledonary area --Cotyledons interdigitate with maternal caruncles to form placentomes -Epitheliochorial -Delayed deciduate |
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Bovine Placentome
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-Fetal cotyledon folds over the maternal caruncle |
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Ovine Placentome
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-Fetal cotyledon wraps around the caruncle
-Caruncle is more concave |
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Epitheliochorial Placenta |
-Cow, Pig, Horse
-Epithelium of the fetal placenta abuts up against the epithelium of the maternal placenta -Blood supplies to the placentas are totally separate -6 cell layers between maternal and fetal blood supply |
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Endotheliochorial Placenta |
-Dog, Cat |
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Hemochorial Placenta
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-Human, Rodents |
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Delayed Deciduate placentation
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-Loss of maternal tissue is completed after birth |
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Endocrinology of Bovine Pregnancy
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-First 15 days are the same as a normally cycling animal
--Mature CL develops and produces progesterone, progesterone stimulates endometrial glands and inhibits uterine contractions -Embryo rarely migrates, stays on same side that ovulated and same side where it was fertilized --mature CL should be palpated on same side as gravid horn -At day 17, if cow is not pregnant, endometrium releases Prostaglandin F2a -If cow is pregnant, fetus signals to endometrium to prevent PGF2a release |
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Bovine Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy
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-Occurs between day 15 and 17 of gestation
-Conceptus produces steroids, prostaglandins, and proteins around day 13 -Interferon Tau is the signal (IFN-t) |
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Interferon Tau
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-Important for bovine maternal recognition of pregnancy
-Produced by embryonic trophoblast -Reduces PGF2a synthesis and secretion by endometrium -Promotes PGE synthesis --reduces oxytocin receptors on the endometrium, prevents the uterus from responding to oxytocin and producing PGF2a |
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Bovine Embryo Secretion of IFN-t
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-Affects maternal vascular permeability, maternal capillaries become more “leaky”
-Changes uterine blood flow and fluid movement -Changes uterine synthetic activity -Allows for nutrient transfer from maternal to fetal -Immunosuppresses the uterus, decreases the response of the uterus to the embryo -Affects mammary gland |
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Bovine CL during pregnancy
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-Maintained throughout pregnancy
-Some progesterone comes from adrenals, cow is dependent on the CL for first 200 days of pregnancy --“intermittently dependent” after day 200 due to progesterone from adrenals -Progesterone and estrogens inhibit the pituitary, -6% of pregnant cows show signs of heat, especially in first trimester |
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Major Bovine Placental Steroids
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-Most are conjugated steroids
--Conjugation reduces estrogenic effects on peripheral maternal tissue --increased estrogen and decreased signs of heat -Estrone -17-alpha estradiol -Androstenedione -Testosterone |
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Estrone Sulfate |
-Conjugated estrogen
-Produced only when the placenta is functional -Fetus needs to be functional and alive for estrogen sulfate -Levels increase dramatically between day 100 and day 150 -Previously was used as a pregnancy test, but rectal palpation is easier --can be used for smaller cows where palpation is difficult |
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Hormones in Bovine Pregnancy
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-Estrone sulfate
-17-a estradiol -Androstenedione -Testosterone -LH (secreted in pulses, maintains CL) -Prolactin during last 2 weeks of pregnancy |
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Steroid distribution in Bovine Pregnancy
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-Steroid levels differ in blood, milk, and fetal fluids
-Compartmentalized in milk |
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Pregnancy Diganosis
Positive Signs of Pregnancy |
1. Fetus
2. Placentomes 3. Fetal Membrane Slip 4. Amnionic vesicle |
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Palpation of the Fetus
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-Positive sign of pregnancy
-Late diagnosis, not good for early identification of pregnancy |
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Palpation of the Amnionic Vesicle
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-Positive sign of Pregnancy
-Need to feel all along both horns to find the vesicle |
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Fetal membrane Slip
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-Positive sign of Pregnancy
-Amnion develops early -Fibrous band runs along the lesser curvature of the uterine horn -Can be felt anywhere along the uterus |
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Circumstantial signs of Pregnancy in Cows
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-Fluid in the uterus
-Thinning of the uterine wall -Asymmetry of uterine horns -Fremitus of the middle uterine artery -Palpation of a CL 18-24 days after breeding -NOT sure signs of pregnancy --indicative of pregnancy, but can also indicate other things going on in the uterus |
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When to look for pregnancy in cows
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-Day 30-35
-NOT after day 40!! Too late, will miss next heat cycle --Want to diagnose pregnancy within first 2 heat cycles after breeding --any later will require an additional 21 day cycle for breeding |
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Early Bovine Pregnancy Diagnosis
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-Day 35-65: palpation of amnionic vesicle
-Before 40 days: fetal membrane slip -After day 70: palpation of the fetus and placentomes --cervix is not freely moveable |
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Estimating Gestation Stage in Cows
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-60 days: mouse, pea, 6-9cm
-90 days: rat, dime, 10-13cm -120 days: cat, quarter, 12-18cm -150 days: small dog, half dollar, 18-23cm -180 days or earlier: fremitus of one middle uterine artery -210 days: fremitus in both middle uterine arteries |
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Other ways to diagnose pregnancy in Cows
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-Milk progesterone levels
-Estrone Sulfate levels -External ballottement after 6 months --positive sign of pregnancy, basically external fetal palpation -Trans-rectal ultrasound --need to be able to see the embryo proper |
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BioPRYN
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-ELISA Blood test for bovine pregnancy
-Looks for pregnancy-specific B protein -B-protein produced by placenta -Detectable in serum by day 30 -Need 2cc of blood for ELISA -Results come back in 1-2 days -97% accurate -Cost is similar to palpation -Can be done in all ruminants -No risk to the pregnancy -No assessment of the fetus, just a Y/N diagnosis |
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Signs of Bovine Parturition
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-increased size and tension of the udder
-Ventral edema -Cervical mucus plug -Relaxation of the vulva, elongation of the vulva -Relaxation of the sacrotuberal ligaments |
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Endocrinology of Bovine Parturition
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-Hypothalamic/Pituitary/Adrenal axis is activated
-Fetal adrenal becomes sensitive to ACTH -Fetus starts to produce more glucocorticoids -Glucocorticoids activates the placentomal enzyme system --enzymes convert Progestagens into estrogens -increase in estrogen increases number of oxytocin receptors on the uterus --uterus is able to release PGF2a -PGF2a causes luteolysis and release of ovarian oxytocin -Progesterone starts to decline gradually then very steeply in association with PGF2a release -Estrogen, oxytocin, and PFG2a cause myometrial contractions -Cervix softens, pelvis relaxes, birth canal expands due to increased prolactin -Fetus enters birth canal and triggers ferguson reflex -Voluntary maternal straining -Relaxin is released during luteolysis |
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Fetal signs of Bovine Parturition
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-Fetal adrenal is sensitive to ACTH from the hypothalamus
-Increases glucocorticoid production |
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Ferguson Reflex
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-Triggered when the fetus enters the birth canal and pressures cervix
-Dilation of cervix causes release of oxytocin from posterior pituitary -Lots of oxytocin is released |
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Lactogenesis and the Postpartum Period in Cows
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-During parturition maternal glucocorticoids increase
--glucocorticoids and prolactin release start milk production -Myometrium contracts for a week after parturition -Uterus produces PGF2a post-partum -Uterine oxytocin receptors decline which causes decrease in estrogen -Placenta passes and involution begins |
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Bovine Stage I labor
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-1-24 hours
-Often goes unnoticed -Early uterine contractions -Fetus positions itself for delivery |
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Bovine Stage II labor
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-Interval between membrane rupture and calf delivery
-Can take 1-4 hours, up to 8 hours --Heifers can take 2-4 ours, up to 8 hours -Starts with rupture of the chorioallantois |
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Bovine Stage III labor
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-Can last up to 12 hours
-Time between delivery of the calf to passage of fetal membranes |
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Indications for Induction of Parturition in Cows
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-Prevention of oversized fetuses
-Prevention of excess udder edema in dairy cows -Maintain tight calving intervals in beef cows -Accidental breeding of feed-lot heifers --want energy to go to meat production, not a calf -Fetal mummy or dead fetus -Compromised dam -High dystocia risk |
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#1 cause of dystocia in 1st calf heifers
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-oversized calves
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Hydrops Allantois
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-Too much fluid in the allantoic cavity
-Life threatening to the cow |
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Precautions with Induction of Parturition in Cows
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-Calf must be less than 2 weeks premature
--Need to know breeding dates!! -If more than 3 weeks premature, calf will be compromised -High incidence of retained placenta -May cause immunosuppression -If using corticosteroids, need viable, live fetus and placenta |
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Short-acting corticosteroids for Bovine induction of parturition
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-Dexamethasone single IM injection
-80-90% effective if given within 2 weeks of due date -Causes parturition in 24-72 hours --up to 3 day wait! -75% of cows will have retained placenta |
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Long-acting corticosteroids for bovine induction of parturition
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-Not used in the US
-Single IM injection 1 month before due date -Will cause parturition in 15 days, or 8 days before or after -9-22% of cows will have retained placenta 17-45% of calves will die -Decreased quality of colostrum -Can add short-acting corticosteroids to shorten calving interval -If calf isn’t worth anything it is a good option |
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Prostaglandins for Bovine induction of parturition
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-Single IM injection of PGF2a
-Lyses CL and induces uterine contractions -Causes calving in 24-72 hours -Effective if the fetus or placenta is non-viable -Calf has goo chance of living if given within 2 weeks of due date -Big change for retained placentas |
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Combination protocol for Induction of Bovine Pregnancy
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-Combination of corticosteroids and prostaglandin
-Calving interval is less variable, more predictable --34.6 hours -Still have high chance of retained placenta -Corticosteroids may increase surfactant levels in calf -Has added cost |
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Artificial Insemination Pregnancy rates
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-40% conception rate on first service
--frozen semen is of poorer quality, decreases conception rates -Conception may not happen because: --ova is not fertilized due to poor timing, old oocyte, poor quality semen --early embryonic death --abortion or premature birth --Stillbirths |
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Bovine embryonic Loss
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-Occurs before day 17, cow will have normal cycle
--can be re-bred on next ovulation -After day 17, cow will have delayed return to estrus --maternal recognition of pregnancy has already happened |
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Causes of Embryonic Loss
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-Nutritional
-Cytogenic, genetic defects -Immunologic -Intrauterine environment -Timing of Inseminatino -Metabolism or energy imbalance |
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Causes of pregnancy loss in late gestation
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-Abortion
-Premature birth -Stillbirth --calf is born at term, but is born dead --can be due to congenital causes or asphyxia |
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Palpable signs of Disturbed Pregnancy
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-Size of pregnant horn does not match where it should be
-Small amount of allantoic fluid -Less turgid amnionic vesicle -Dry or tacky allantochorion -Usually can only be detected if there is a big problem |
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Bovine Abortion
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-2-5% sporadic abortion is considered to be normal
-If abortion rate exceeds 5%, need to look at herd causes -55-65% of abortions are undiagnosed --23-34% are due to infection --6% due to twins --4% due to dystocia or other anomalies |
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Twins in cows
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-bad news!
-increased dystocia, abortion, and retained fetal membranes -Freemartins -Not dire enough to terminate one of the pregnancies, but not good |
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Fetal Mummification
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-Fetus dies and CL is maintained
-progesterone stays high -Conceptus stays sterile and fluid is resorbed -Sometimes a 2nd live fetus can be present, but rare -Usually goes undiagnosed for months --cow is healthy, does not show signs of abortion -Dx via rectal palpation -Treat with PGF2a to lyse CL and decrease progesterone -Prognosis is good for the cow, still fertile |
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Fetal maceration
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-Fetus dies in-utero with infection present
--usually an ascending infection from the cervix -CL is maintained, fetus is in a septic environment -Cow will be systemically ill -Uterus will be thin and atonic, filled with fluid -Need to remove the fetus and treat the cow for metritis -Prognosis is poor for the cow --hard to get all of the little bits out --surgery is rarely warranted |
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Hydrops Amnion
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-Fetus does not do a good job of regulating amnionic fluid
--“fetus does not swallow” -Fluid builds up in amnionic cavity -Gradual progression that may not be noticed until parturition -Prognosis for the cow is fair to good -Calf is usually dead |
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Hydrops Allantois
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-More common than hydrops amnion
-Progresses rapidly and dramatically -Occurs during the last 1/3 of gestation, usually near term -Uterus is distended with fluid -Cow is off-feed and down -Prognosis is poor to grave --cow cannot maintain systemic BP --drain fluid gradually! -Calf can still be alive |
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Uterine Torsion
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-Noticed during first or second stage of labor
-Usually 180 degree twist, can be 360 -Usually caudal to the cervix and involves the vagina -Abdominal pain and contractions with no calf delivered, extended stage I labor -Diagnose via rectal exam, broad ligament will be stretched over the top of the uterus and tight -Other signs depend on the severity of the twist -Can correct manually via vagina, via rolling the cow, or laparotomy -Variable prognosis, usually good if addressed early |
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Rolling a Uterine Torsion
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-Idea is to roll the cow but keep the fetus in place
-Get the cow to “catch up with the twist” |
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Heifer
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-Female cow that has not had a calf
-Usually pretty young -Still growing -No significant udder |
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First-calf Heifer
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-Has had 1 calf
-Also a “Cow” -Have specific nutritional needs -Animal is still growing AND lactating |
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Cow
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-Has hat 1 or more calves
-Huge, developed udders |
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Cow ovaries
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-Smaller than horse ovaries
-Oval in shape -No ovulation fossa -Mature follicles ovulate when 10-15mm in size -Follicles are ALWAYS present on the ovary --hard to predict ovulation, cannot know when small follicle will ovulate when |
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Bovine follicles and CL
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-Mature CL will double the size of the ovary
-CL forms superficially, sits on top of the ovary |
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Bovine oviduct
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-Infundibulum
-Ampulla (site of fertilization) -Isthmus -No sphincter at the junction of the isthmus and uterine horn --allows ascending infections to get into the oviduct from the uterus --results in a lot of oviduct pathology |
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Bovine Oviduct pathology
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-More common in the cow than other species due to lack of sphincter to prevent ascending infections
-Salpingitis (inflammation) -Hydrosalpinx (water/fluid) -Pyosalpinx (pus) -Oviduct filled with stuff can cause adhesions and decrease patency --no patency, no channel for ovum or sperm --cow cannot get pregnant -Can palpate pathology when at an advanced stage |
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Bovine Uterus
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-Short body and long horns
-Intercornual ligament connects the horns near the body -Diameter of horns is based on parity, horns become distended during pregnancy -Tone chances with stage of the cycle, uterus is very susceptible to progesterone and estrogens -Caruncles are always present |
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Estrogen vs. Progesterone on bovine uterus
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-Estrogen: uterus is tightly curled and edematous
-Progesterone: uterus is floppy, flaccid |
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Bovine Uterine Pathology
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-Metritis
-Retained fetal membranes -Abscesses -Mucometra -Hydrometra -Pyometra -Granulomas --often form at bifurcation of uterine horns due to poor AI technique -Tumors |
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Uterine tumors
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-Leiomyomas
-Fibromas -Adenocarcnimoas -Lymphosarcomas -Uterine tumors are rare in cows (except for lymphosarcoma) |
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Bovine Cervix
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-Long, firm tissue
-Does not change with ovulation cycle -Has cervical rings --resists changes to the uterus based on ovulation cycle -Protrudes slightly into the vagina -Larger in Bos Indicus than Bos taurus |
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Bovine Cervicitis
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-Infection of the cervix
--can be ascending or descending -Occurs secondary to metritis, dystocia, abortion, retained fetal membranes, vaginitis, AI pipette damage -Cervix becomes enlarged and thickened, hyperemic, edematous -Can lead to prolapse of the cervical rings --telescope into each other -Common but usually not clinically significant --does not affect future pregnancies |
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Prolapsed Cervical Rings
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-Cervical ectropion
-Common in cows -Cervix will feel enlarged -Exam with speculum will show intussuscepted rings -Rarely clinically significant |
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Bovine cervical Lacerations
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-Usually secondary to dystocia or fetotomy
-Difficult to repair due to fibrous nature of the rings -Prevention is best --properly manage calvings, do no tear cervic when delivering a calf |
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Congenital cervical defects in Cows
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-Double cervix: no fusion of uterine ducts
-Cervical atresia -Can cause problems with parturition -May be able to inseminate, but when calf tries to come out might get stuck -Congenital defects usually have a genetic component, do not re-breed the cow |
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Cow vagina, vestibule, and vulva
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-Fewer conformational issues than the mare
-May have a residual or imperforate hymen --need to break down hymen before breeding |
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Bovine Vaginitis
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-Occurs secondary to metritis, retained fetal membranes, cervicitis, trauma, infections, poor conformation, pneumovagina
-Most commonly occurs after delivery |
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Urovagina in Bovine
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-Less common than in the mare
-Surgery may be indicated if severe |
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Bovine vaginal cysts
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-Usually associated with cystic mesonephric ducts
-Common -Rarely need treatment -Mesonephric duct system should regress in females, may have small remnants |
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Cystic vestibular glands in Bovines
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-AKA Bartholins glands
-Small paired glands on the lateral walls of the vestibule -Can become blocked and enlarged -May protrude from the vulvar lips -Can look like a prolapsed vagina or a fetus -Tx: incise --make sure you know what it is before you cut it! |
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Bovine Puberty
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-Age at which an animal becomes capable of reproducing
-Onset of estrus and ovulation -6-18 months, earlier is better for production --less money spent with no return -Reproduction at puberty is not very efficient, but has to happen at some point |
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Factors influencing the onset of puberty
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-Genetics and breed
-Nutrition -Birth season --heifers born in autumn go through puberty before spring heifers -Disease can delay onset of puberty |
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Hormonal control of Bovine Puberty
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-Before puberty hypothalamus is sensitive to inhibition from ovarian hormones |
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Cycling characteristics of Cows
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-Non-seasonal polyestrus
-Non-seasonal cycling -21 day cycle in cows, 20 day cycle in heifers -Shorter and longer cycles exist, indicates pathology of some sort -Follicular waves are present --diestrus follicles |
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Stages of the Bovine cycle
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-Proestrus
-Estrus (heat behavior): Day 0 of cycle -Metestrus -Diestrus |
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Bovine Estrus
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-Starts on day 0 of the cycle
-Cow shows signs of sexual receptivity -Mature follicle is present on the ovary -No CL, low progesterone environment -Short duration, 10-18 hours --can be as short as 2 hours -Shorter duration in heifers than in cows |
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Bovine ovulation
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-Occurs at the end of estrus
-Cow ovulates after behavioral signs of estrus are over |
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Bovine follicular waves
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-Normally 2-3 waves per 21 day cycle
-Diestrus follicles are normally present -Increasing FSH results in recruitment of follicles -During diestrus progesterone from CL is high, prevents LH surge --no LH surge, no rupture of the follicle -Once CL lyses and progesterone decreases, LH surge can occur and follicle can lyse -Number of follicular waves are consistent from cycle to cycle -Later waves are more viable -Estradiol levels increase as follicles grow -Pattern of follicular waves may have impact on success of estrus synchronizing programs -First wave starts the day after estrus |
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Definitive sign of heat/estrus
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-Standing for mounting
--15-30 minutes 2-3x daily --mounts last for 15 seconds -Need to watch! Careful observation is critical |
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Non-definitive signs of heat/estrus
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-Hyperemic or moist vulvar/vaginal membranes
-Cervical mucus -Toned, edematous uterus -Large follicle with no CL on palpation -Vaginal discharge -Licking perineum of other cows -Mounting intention or mounting other cows -Increased vocalization -Increased activity |
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Metestrus in Cows
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-Occurs right after estrus
-CL is not yet fully functional -Progesterone is increasing and estrogen is decreasing -50% of cows have metestral bleeding --due to estrogen withdrawal --capillaries are more “leaky” without estrogen influence --NOT menstrual bleeding, hormonally and physiologically distinct -CH is present on the ovary |
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Diestrus in Cows
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-CL is present on the ovary and fully functional
-Progesterone is high -Estrogen is low -Prostaglandin is released around day 17 if cow is not pregnant --CL is lysed and progesterone decreases --CL becomes corpus albicans -Prostaglandin is released from uterus, travels to ipsilateral ovary via uterine vein to ovarian artery to ovary -Have follicular waves |
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Prostaglandin countercurrent exchange
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-Local countercurrent exchange between uterine vein and ovarian artery
-Does not go into systemic circulation -Allows prostaglandin to lyse CL on ipsilateral ovary |
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Presence of a follicle on a bovine ovary
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-Does not necessarily mean the cow is in estrus
-Follicles are present all of the time -If there is a CL the cow is for sure NOT in heat |
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Detecting Bovine Diestrus
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-End of estrus, end of behavioral signs
-Uterus is less toned -Mucus membranes will be pale and dry -CL will be present on the ovary --most definitive sign of diestrus --75% accuracy in detection via palpation |
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Fun Facts about Heat Detection
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-Poor heat detection is #1 cause of increased calving intervals
-Cows are more active when they are cool -Most mounts occur between 10pm and 5am -Do not attempt to detect heat when cows are distracted (during eating/milking) -Use trained personnel -6% of pregnant cows show signs of heat -Cycling cows are more active than pregnant cows |
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Heat detection Aids
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-DO not replace good heat detection! Helpful, but not a replacement
-Kamar or Crayon for low-tech methods -Pedometers, pressure sensors, other electronic devices -Teaser animals --vasectomized bull, androgen treated cow --still have to detect heat |
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Bovine Pasture Breeding
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-Mainly for beef cattle and dairy heifers
-Bull is turned out for a defined period of time -Pregnancy exam 45 days after bull is removed -Difficult with dairy cows, need more consistent production -Results in sub-optimal genetics |
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Artifical Insemination in Cows
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-Need to detect heat! Need to know when cow is in heat
-Breed animal 12 hours after first signs of heat --cow ovulates after end of behavioral heat -Decision to breed off metestral bleeding -Breeding cows on signs other than standing heat will decrease conception rates -Main source of error with AI is poor heat detection |
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Advantages of AI
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-Proven sires, improved genetics
-Safer and cheaper than keeping a bull all year -Reduces or eliminate spread of venereal disease |
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Disadvantages of AI
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-Need well-trained personnel
-Can spread genetic abnormalities --takes 5 years for a bull to be “proven” -Need very accurate heat detection or appropriate synchronization program |
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Frozen Semen for AI
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-Frozen in extender |
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Immediate post-partum care of the Dam
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-Forced extraction increases risk of trauma
-Do not intervene prematurely! -Need reproductive tract to dilate -Premature intervention leads to lacerations, bruises, necrosis -WAIT 1 hour in cows, 2 hours in heifers |
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Bovine involution and return to cyclicity
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-Important component of bovine reproduction, involution is key!
-Transition period -Occurs 4 weeks before calving to 3 weeks after calving -Period when many issues can occur |
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Bovine uterine involution
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-takes 28-35 days for gross involution
-Histologic involution takes a little longer -Voluntary wait period of 50-60 days before re-breeding to allow for involution -Periparturient disease will delay normal involution --extends voluntary wait period --increases calving interval, decreases profitability |
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Uterus Involution stages
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1. Gravid horn is biggest, then non-gravid horn, then cervix
2. Gravid horn, cervix, non-gravid horn -non-gravid horn involutes quickly 3. Cervix, gravid horn, non-gravid horn 4. Complete involution by day 30-35 -Do not base breeding decisions on post-partum uterine palpation, too variable |
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Lochia
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-Post-partum uterine discharge in cows
-Normal -Reddish-brown, should not smell bad -Contains normal and degenerate endometrial cells and blood --RBCs and epithelial cells -Should be seen in decreasing amounts after parturition --Gone by day 15-20 |
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Endometrial histologic involution
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-Caruncles return to pre-partum size
-Blood vessels constrict -Cells become ischemic, necrose, and slough (day 5-10) -Endometrium is re-epithelialized by day 20-25 -Complete regression to small, avascular caruncles by 40-60 days |
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Bacteriology of Uterine Involution
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-Involution is a septic process
-90% of cows have bacteria in their uterus for 2 weeks after parturition -Less than 9% of cows will have bacteria by 40-60 days after parturition -During the voluntary wait period bacteria should be cleared -By breeding time, uterus should be sterile |
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Bovine return to cyclicity
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-Anestrus is normal postpartum
-Ovaries are not cycling, no GnRH released from hypothalamus -Follicles start to grow 10-15 days after parturition -Ovulation resumes by day 15-20, normally a short, silent heat --Do not breed on first estrus, uterus is not involuted |
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Delayed return to cyclicity in Cows
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-Most common cause of delayed return to cyclicity is poor heat detection
--perception of anestrus -Periparturient disease can cause delayed cyclicity -Beef cows have lactational anestrus, nursing prolongs metestrus -Cystic follicular degeneration -Poor nutrition, metabolic needs are not met and reproduction shuts down --beef cows in winter --high producing dairy cows |
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Postpartum Problems
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-Lacerations
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Postpartum Lacerations
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-Small, clean lacerations usually do not need treatment, heal on own
-Large tears during forced delivery should be treated aggressively |
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Vulvar lacerations
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-Common in heifers
-Usually between the dorsal commissure and the anus -Most heal without treatment -If severe, can suture -Delayed closure is best, do not suture immediately -Episiotomy is better than waiting for a spontaneous tear |
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Vaginal Lacerations
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-Common after assisted delivery, large calf, under-lubricated calf
--Cannot have too much lube! -Vagina heals very well if clean, opposable edges are present -Caudal vagina: fat prolapse --can be trimmed, do not need to suture |
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Cervical Lacerations
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-Occur during dystocia or if traction is applied before the cervix is dilated
-Surgical correction is rarely successful -Bad news! |
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Uterine Lacerations
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-Can be due to jagged bone edges of mutilated fetus
-Improper use of instruments (fetotome) -Cow straining against a blockage can cause uterine lacerations --hoof punctures through the uterus -Small dorsal tears usually heal --gravity keeps stuff from sinking down -Large, ventral lacerations should be sutured -Suture via vagina, or via laparotomy -Can give oxytocin and systemic antibiotics to contract the uterus and address inflammation |
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Always perform an examination per vagina after an assisted calving!
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-Look for twins, tears, etc.
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Peri-parturient Hemorrhage
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-Common sequela to lacerations
-Ligate if needed -May need to do laparotomy -Can place a hemostat ad leave it, come back after calving is over -Oxytocin may help uterine bleeding --decreases blood vessel size -Blood transfusions can be used, but are not economically justified |
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Prolapse
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-Eversions of portions of the genital tract through the vulva
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Vaginal Prolapse
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-Category I: intermittent
-Category II: constant -Category III: constant and involving vagina and cervix -Category IV: Category III with tissue trauma and necrosis -Usually occurs during late gestation or shortly after parturition -Increased estrogen during parturition relaxes the caudal reproductive tract -Most common in Herefords, beef breeds -Most commonly in cows with excess fat -More common in pluriparous cows, multiple calvings |
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Clinical signs of Category I vaginal prolapse
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-Early protrusion of mucus membranes
-May only be seen when cow is recumbent --weight of abdomen pushes on caudal vagina -Usually only involves caudal vagina -Not a big deal |
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Category II vaginal prolapse
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-Progressive protrusion of the anterior vagina
-Constant protrusion, out all of the time -Makes animal strain, makes prolapse worse -Not an emergency, need to keep an eye on it an address at some point |
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Category III vaginal prolapse
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-Irritation causes straining
-Size of the prolapse increases -Cervix becomes involved -Needs to be addressed |
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Category IV vaginal prolapse
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-Prolapsed tissue has been exposed to trauma and become infected
-Severe cases may involve thrombosis, ulceration, necrosis of the vagina -Toxemia, severe straining, anorexia all occur -Rectum and bladder can be involved |
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Treatment for Prolapse
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-Stop the cycle!
-replace the prolapse -Apply retention device -Prognosis is good if treated early -Administer epidural, clean, lubricate, and replace -If the bladder is involved may need to catheterize the bladder |
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Prolapse retention devices
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-Lace vulva closed or caslicks is too superficial, will pull out
-Cervicopexy: tack cervix to the pelvic ligaments -Partial resection (salvage procedure) |
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Buhner technique to repair prolapse
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-Do before the calving and keep a close watch out for calving time
-Stab incision from the bottom upwards, thread back down -Make sure the Buhner needle goes deep, not superficial or SQ |
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Post-calving prolapse
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-Cow returns to normal as estrogen levels decline
-Prolapse will recur in subsequent pregnancies and will often be more severe -DO NOT RE-BREED! -Possibly a heritable/genetic component to prolapse |
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Uterine Prolapse
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-Occurs within a few hours of the end of stage II labor
-0.2-0.3% of cattle have prolapse -Mostly in dairy cattle, cows more often than heifers -Highest incidence in well-fed, closely confined cows -Seasons and regional factors play a role |
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Etiology of Uterine prolapse
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-Unclear etiology
-Occurs during 3rd stage labor, after some placentomes have separated --due to weight of the fetal membranes? -Straining and gravity play a role -Flaccid uterus -Concurrent hypocalcemia is common -Eversion starts at caudal end and progresses cranially towards uterine tips -can involve the bladder |
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Uterine Prolapse Prognosis
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-Good prognosis if treated early
-Cow will have normal fertility afterwards -No increased risk for prolapse with subsequent calvings -Sudden death can occur of ovarian arteries rupture in process --address early! Fix quickly -Not thought to be heritable |
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Uterine Prolapse treatment
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-Emergency! Treat ASAP!
-Elevate the uterus, keep clean -Relieve any rumen tympany with a stomach tube -Give epidural and put animal in sternal recumbency with hind legs extended -Wash uterus, remove fetal membranes if easy -Check integrity and involvement of bladder and intestine |
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Uterine Prolapse Reduction
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-Replace uterus nearest the vulva first
-Squeeze and push through the vulva using the flat of a hand, NO FINGERS or instruments -Push tips all the way in, make sure nothing is telescoped or intussuscepted -Infuse with saline, siphon off -Give oxytocin after the uterus has been replaced -Give Ca -Should not need vulvar sutures, if replaced well will not cause any straining and no suture is needed --if replacement is incomplete, will have re-prolapse -Amputation as salvage procedure |
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Oxytocin during uterine prolapse
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-Give AFTER the uterus has been replaced
-Shrinks uterus, makes it harder to replace |
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Fetal Membrane Retention
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-Membranes are retained if not passed within 12 hours
-Can be partially retained or completely retained -Dairy cows are more commonly affected than beef cows --3-12% of dairy cows -Incidence can be greater than 50% with abnormal parturition --dystocia, abortion, twins |
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Normal fetal membrane expulsion
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-Disollution of collagen links between microvilli of fetal cotyledons and maternal caruncle |
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Retained fetal membrane pathogenesis is probably multi-factorial
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-Immature placenta (twins, induced labor): collagen is not yet dissolved
-Inadequate uterine contractions (exhausted cow, hypocalcemia) -Placentome inflammation or bacterial contamination (swollen villi that do not break down) -Stress increases glucocorticoids |
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Treatment for Retained Fetal Membranes
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-No great treatment
--lots of things that could hurt, few things that can help -DO NOT PULL! -If attachment is a little loose, gentle contraction can be used -Stop immediately if traction gives resistance or fresh blood is seen -Can trim hanging membranes to reduce chance of ascending infection -Can give intrauterine antimicrobials to address possible ascending infections --not the best plan |
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Pulling Retained Fetal Membranes
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-BAD IDEA!
-Increases incidence of metritis -Reduces conception rates -Increases calving interval -Higher culling rate due to infertility -Increased time to resume cyclicity |
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Intrauterine antimicrobials for Retained Fetal membranes
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-Prevents secondary infection
-Also kills normal bacteria that could help with passing of the membranes --bacteria is normal and required for normal separation of membranes -Uncomplicated retained membranes is not an issue, secondary metritis is an issue! -67% of cows that get antibiotics still get metritis -Neomycin, iodine, nitrofurazone, and some sulfonamdides cause inflammation, opposite of what you want -Penicillin is usually not effective -Aminoglycosides require aerobic environment -Oxytetracycline can be tried, does not make membranes move but may help with metritis |
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Oxytocin therapy for Retained Fetal membranes
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-must be given soon after calving
--Uterus rapidly loses sensitivity to oxytocin -Have to give before you know if membranes will be retained or not -can give pre-emptively with dystocias or other risk factors |
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Prostaglandin therapy for Retained Fetal Membranes
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-May not hurt, but probably does not help much
-Supposedly uterotonic |
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Collagenase therapy for retained fetal membranes
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-Intraumbilical infusion
-Impractical and expensive approach -Not useful in the field |
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Metritis
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-Major pathologic cause of loss of potential income for dairy farmers
-Extends calving interval -Reduces cow appetite and milk yield -Adversely affects future reproductive performance |
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Puerperal Period Metritis
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-“Toxic Metritis”
-Ovaries are inactive -Happens after calving to 10-14 days after calving -Pituitary is sensitive to GnRH again -Will smell bad and have serosanguinous discharge -May have systemic involvement causing toxic metritis -Uterus is fluid-filled, atonic -If animal is systemically ill, treat! |
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Intermediate Period Metritis
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-from start of when pituitary is sensitive to GnRH to first post-partum ovulation
--2-3 weeks postpartum -Thick, purulent or mucopurulent discharge of variable amount and variable odor -Fluid may be palpable per rectum -Delayed involution of the uterus and cervix |
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Post-ovulatory period Metritis
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-From 1st post-partum ovulation to time when uterus is able to maintain a pregnancy
-“Chronic Metritis” -Clinical signs are often not present, no systemic signs -uterus is normal size or slightly enlarged -Thick, edematous uterine walls -Minimal to no discharge -Cyclicity may be altered, may have premature prostaglandin release --cow cannot maintain a pregnancy, uterus continually releases prostaglandins --short cycling animal -Pyometra may develop |
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Etiology of Metritis
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-Poorly understood
-Lots of predisposing factors -Dystocia -Retained fetal membranes (ascending infection) -Twins -Hypocalcemia -Older age at calving -Overweight animal -Poor nutrition -Dirty calving area |
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Metritis Infectious Agents
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-Ascending infection
-Aerobes: --E. coli, proteus, A. pyogenes, incidental bacteria -Anaerobes: --clostridium, bacteroides, fusobacterium |
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Puerperal Period Metritis Bacteria
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-Mixed population of bacteria
-A pyogenes -Anaerobes (Clostridium, bacteroides, fusobacterium) -Incidental bacteria |
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Intermediate period Metritis Bacteria
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-Mostly A. pyogenes and gram- anaerobes
-As time progresses gram- anaerobes and A. pyogenes are found more and more --Eventually become only organisms present in the uterus |
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Synergistic Interaction of Bacteria in metritis
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-Fusobacterium toxin damages WBCs, protects A. pyogenes
-A. pyogenes growth factor enhances fusobacterium growth -Bacteroides has factor that interferes with bacterial killing after phagocytosis |
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Metritis sequelae
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-Can progress to salpingitis or bursitis as an ascending infection
-May cause cervicitis and vaginitis as descending infections |
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Diagnosing Metritis
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-Clinical signs in post-partum period (foul smelling discharge, fluid-filled uterus)
-Difficult to diagnose chronic metritis, cows are systemically healthy --poor involution (ultrasound) --discharge (speculum exam) --endometrial cytology (swab, cytobrush) -Culture is rarely indicated, know what kind of bacteria you will have |
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Treating Metritis with Antimicrobials
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-Penicillin is not useful intrauterine in puerperal or intermediate metritis due to penicillinase bacteria in uterus
-Can give systemic antimicrobials -IN post-ovulatory period can give intrauterine antibiotics -Will have milk withhold |
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Oxytetracycline as Treatment for Metritis
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-Good for puerperal and intermediate periods
-Can be given intrauterine or systemically -Use non-irritating formulations -Has LONG milk withhold |
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Ceftiofur as treatment for Metritis
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-Drug of choice due to no milk withhold
-As effective as penicillin for toxic puerperal metritis |
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Hormone treatment for Metritis
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1. Prostaglandins: pyometra treatment
--2 injections are often effective for chronic metritis when there is a CL present --questionable efficacy for puerperal and intermediate periods 2. GnRH: little evidence that it helps 3. Estrogens: cannot give to food animals --theoretically enhances uterine immunity --may increase risk of salpingitis --has significant withholds |
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NSAIDS for Metritis
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-Indicated in animals that are off-feed and/or febrile
-Results in increased appetite and milk production |
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Overview of Metritis Treatment
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-Most metritis resolves spontaneously
-Prostaglandins are indicated in post-ovulatory period, lyses CL -Systemically ill cows should be treated systemically, use correct antibiotic -No treatment is a valid alternative in systemically well cows |
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Cystic Follicular Degeneration
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-Cystic ovarian disease
-Cystic ovarian degeneration -Cystic follicles -Ovarian cysts -Luteal cysts -Cystic cows |
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Ovarian Cysts
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-Follicle-like structure
-more than 25mm in diameter -Persists for more than 10 days without a CL -One big, persistent follicle -Presence of multiple ovarian follicles 18-20mm in diameter without a CL --poor uterine tone |
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Follicular Cysts
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-Thin walled
-Single or multiple -One or both ovaries -Uterus is atonic -larger than 25mm, persist for more than 7-10 days |
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Luteal Cysts
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-Usually single
-Persist in atonic uterus -Thicker wall -Partially luteinized -No line of demarcation -No change in ovarian shape -Usually has fluid in the center |
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Cystic Follicular degeneration
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-Highest incidence in dairy cattle
-Due to inadequate LH surge or deficiency in LH receptors -Follicular waves still grow but turnover is slower --13-19 days vs. 8.5 days in normal cows |
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Clinical signs of cysts
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-Anestrus (no CL, no ovulation)
-Nymphomania -Chronic cases may have relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and cow may have a masculine appearance -Uterus is atonic, possibly edematous |
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Diagnosis of Cysts
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-Records that show anestrus or nymphomania
-Palpation of a large, persistent structure on the ovary -Difficult to differentiate follicular cysts and luteal cysts on palpation --follicular cysts are more common -Uterus will be atonic -Hydrometra or mucometra |
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Cyst treatment
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-Most self-correct within 30 days
-After 30 days, may need treatment -Treat as follicular cyst unless you know it is not a follicular cyst -Manual rupture is not recommended --causes bleeding and inflammation |
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Treatment of Follicular Cysts
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-GnRH: causes leuteinization
-hCG -GnRH followed by PGF2a --corrects both follicular and luteal cysts -CIDR -OvSync program |
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Delayed ovulation in cows
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-May be due to follicular cysts |
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Broad Ligament in the Horse
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-Big sheet of muscle
-Acts like a sling -Holds blood vessels, nerves -Mesometrium supports the uterus and uterine horns -Mesovarium supports the ovaries -Mesosalpinx supports the oviducts |
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Mare Ovary
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-“Inside out” with medulla on outside and cortex on inside
-Follicles come from the medullary portion on outside -Rupture to the INSIDE -Oocyte is released from the ovarian fossa on the interior of the ovary -Cannot feel the ovulation site on ovary, ovulates from cortex on the INSIDE -Follicle ruptures through the ovarian fossa |
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Ovulation fossa neoplasia
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-Common neoplasia in Mares
-Obliterates the ovulation fossa -Always palpate the fossa to be sure there is no neoplasia |
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Mare Oviduct
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-Infandibulum: catches the ova and transports to oviduct
--very closely associated with the ovulation fossa -Ampulla: has muscles around it --site of fertilization -Isthmus: controls transport of developing egg from ampula to the uterus --Has sphincter at jct with uterine horn that prevents ascending infections |
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Mare Uterine Body
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-Large uterine body
-Whole reproductive tract is suspended by the broad ligament -Endometrial folds are present --longitudinal folds --increase surface area |
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Endometrial folds in the Mare
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-Increase surface area of the uterus
-Can be palpated if the mare is not pregnant --no palpable folds can be indication for pregnancy -Character of the folds change with the cycle -When mare is ready for fertilization folds are edematous --character of edema can give idea of when mare will ovulate --Edema wanes towards time of ovulation |
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Mare Cervix
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-Muscular cervix
-Reasonably easy to dilate and relax -Porteovaginalis sticks out into the uterus -Has a circular muscle --contracts under the influence of progesterone (pregnancy, diestrus) --relaxes when there is no progesterone (estrus) |
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Character of Mare Cervix
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-Indicates hormone status of the mare
-Acts as a built-in bioassay -Pregnant cervix: closed, elongated, tight cervix -Anestrus cervix: closed -Estrus cervix: soft, relaxed, can put hand through, feels like flat tissue |
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Vaginal Frenulum in Mares
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-On cervix
-Extension of cervical fold -Not an adhesion |
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Vestibular vaginal ring in Mares
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-Caudal border of the vagina
-Protects the uterus from contamination -Prevents ascending infections |
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FSH
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-Produced in anterior pituitary
-Causes follicles to grow on ovaries -Follicles release estrogen, estrogen acts back on brain |
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Puberty in Horses
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-Onset of estrum
-1 to 1.5 years old -Influenced by body weight, lots of variation when it happens -Gonadotropins increase in amplitude and frequency -Animal is capable of ovulation |
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Mare estrus cycle
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-Seasonally polyestrus
-21 day cycle -Repeating cycles during certain times of the year -“Long day breeder,” breeds in the spring and summer -Seasonal variations in reproduction is controlled by daylight |
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Effects of Daylight on Mare reproductive cycle
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-During periods of light melotonin is released by the pineal gland
-Low levels of melatonin released during periods of light -Kiss neurons are stimulated, GnRH levels increase -Gonads are stimulated -Mare cycles when there is increasing daylight |
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Ovarian Cycle in the Mare
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-Corpus hemorrhagicum forms on ovary immediately after ovulation
-CL is mature by day 5-6, responsive to prostaglandins -On day 14 prostaglandins are released and CL is destroyed -Follicle is able to grow and develop |
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Estrus in mares
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-“Sexual receptivity”
-heat -Dominant follicle develops -Duration of heat decreases as day lengthens --heat duration can be 2-7 days -Ovulation occurs every 21 days -Early in season mares are in heat for longer than at peak season --sexually receptive for longer -More effective to breed mares in June, know that there is more of a chance to catch an ovulation |
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Mare Ovulatory Follicles
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-30-50mm in diameter
-Increase the size of the ovary |
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Length of Estrus in Mares
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-0-48 hours
-Related to how quickly progesterone concentrations increase -Stallion sperm should be able to last 2 days in order to fertilize |
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Mare Diestrus
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-Rejection of the stallion
-CL on ovary matures, becomes responsive to prostaglandins -Progesterone dominates -Cervix closes -Uterus has tone, is round and tubular -PGF2a is released on day 14 if the mare is not pregnant -Mid-cycle follicular wave, 2 follicular waves per cycle |
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Anestrus in Mares
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-Occurs in fall and winter, short day length
-Ovaries are inactive, some small follicles present -Uterus is flaccid, no progesterone or estrogen -Cervix is not closed |
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Equine transitional breeding season
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-Vernal (spring)
-Autumnal (fall) -Long irregular periods of receptivity -Numerous follicles but no ovulation --insufficient amount of LH, no ovulation -Ovaries are large |
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Behavioral signs of Sexual receptivity/Estrus in Mares
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-Interest in the stallion
-Tail is raised -Abduction of hind legs -Squatting -Eversion of vulvar lips/”winking” -Urination before copulation -Permits copulation -Neutral position of the ears |
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What makes a mare tolerate copulation
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-Lack of progesterone |
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Behavioral signs of Diestrus in the Mare
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-Moves away from the stallion |
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Female Cat Physiology
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-Puberty at 9-10 months old
-Can breed for 8-10 years, or as long as they have intact anatomy -Peak reproduction at 2-3 years old -Depends on time of year, hemisphere, light availability --very sunlight-dependent -Seasonal breeders with seasonal anestrus --Breed when daylight becomes longer (spring) |
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Cat Estrus cycle
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-Seasonal polyestrus
-Influenced by the environment -Multiple cycles during breeding season -January-mid-october in northern hemisphere -Need 14-16 hours of light |
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Hormones during heat cycles of Cats
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-Estrogen peaks during reproductive season
-Estrus and post-estrus periods -LH peak once animal has ovulated --induced ovulatory -Progesterone increases once ovulation has occurred |
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Proestrus in the Cat
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-Very short, 1-2 days
-Goes unnoticed by most people -Estrogen is increasing -Male cat will recognize proestrus phase but female will not let male approach |
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Estrus in the Cat
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-Follicular stage
-Behavior goes WILD! -3-16 days, average 4-7 -Mean is 4.4 days if animal is bred, 7.4 days if not bred -Cat is induced ovulatory, as soon as animal is bred estrus goes away -External genitalia does not have any overt changes -Vaginal cytology will show change in vaginal mucosa to epithelial cells --vaginal cytology can result in ovulation! |
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Induction of ovulation in Cats
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-Depends on estrogen level
-Do not do vaginal cytology, may cause ovulation -Spines on male cat penis stimulate ovulation -Vaginal stimulation results in LH surge, LH surge allows for ovulation in 24-48 hours |
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Cat post-estrus period
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-Low estradiol levels
-Low progesterone levels -Lasts 9 days on average -Cats cycle over and over every 14-21 days |
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Diestrus in Cats
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-If cat is induced to ovulate, will get increase in progesterone
--Fertile mating: pregnancy and progesterone levels stay elevated for 65 days --non-fertile mating: pseudopregnancy, progesterone levels drop at 40-50 days |
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Reproductive Exam in Cats
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-History
-Physical exam -Vaginal cytology -Vaginoscopy -Hormone tests -FeLV, FIV tests |
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Breeding Behavior sequence in Cats
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-Neck biting
-Mounting -Positioning -Pelvic thrusting -Intromission -Multiple matings, usually 3-4 matings -Ovulation occurs 24-48 hours after breeding |
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Female Cat estrus behavior
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-Rolling
-rubbing |
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Breeding Management in Cats
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-healthy parents
-No genetic diseases or illnesses -From a healthy, good-sized litter -Physical exam is normal -test for FeLV, FIV, Toxoplasmosis -Quarantine |
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Infertility in Cats
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-Congenital defects
-Viral infections (indirect cause) -bacterial infections -Malnutrition -Hormonal imbalances --cysts -Concurrent disease --kidney disease -Improper environment/poor lighting -Loner cat, does not want to breed -False pregnancy -Chromosomal abnormalities |
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Normal Pregnancy in a Cat
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-Implantation happens 12-14 days after fertilization
-Different gestational aged fetuses are possible in cats --if a few days apart, both are viable -Progesterone is produced by CL (40-50 days) and uterus --CL is needed to maintain pregnancy for first 40-50 days -Duration of pregnancy is 64-69 days -Endotheliochorial zonary placentation |
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Feline placentation
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-Endotheliochorial
-Zonary -Can see zones from outside -“Belt” goes around the fetus -Marginal hematomas are normal in cat and dog placentas |
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Diagnosing Pregnancy in Cats
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-Palpation of fetuses from 16-20 days until parturition
-Ultrasound from 18 days until parturition -Radiographs from 42 days until parturition --bones calcify around 42 days -Mammary glands will be pink and enlarged --indicates that the cat has ovulated, not that she is pregnant |
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Diagnosing Abnormal Pregnancy in Cats
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-Viral infections
-Abortions caused by FPV, FeLV, FRTV -Malformations caused by FPV --if mother is infected while pregnant, fetuses will have cerebellar hypoplasia -Bacterial infections -Insufficient progesterone concentration -Malnutrition -Vaccines, drugs |
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Normal Parturition in Cats
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-Nesting behavior begins 12-24 hours before birth
-Lactation -Drop in body temp from 101.5 to 98, big drop! --if temp goes down, then goes back up without a kitten produced, emergency!! -4 hours from onset to first kitten, can be as small as 1 hour later -Kittens come every 30-60 minutes, can be as long as 2 hours -Total duration of parturition can be 4-48 hours -Average litter size is 4-6 kittens --depends on breed -Bloody discharge for up to 10 days post-parturition --often is cleaned up by cat |
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Abnormal parturition in Cats
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-Obstruction (queen side or kitten side)
-Uterine inertia -Oversized kittens -Dead kittens -Premature kittens --more than 3 days premature gives poor prognosis -Brachycephalic breeds have trouble -Emergencies |
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Dystocias in Cats
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-Is a problem in cats!
-Siamese twins -Green discharge before birth of 1st kitten is an emergency! C-section! --indicates the placenta has let go and the fetus is without oxygen -Schistosoma reflexum -Radiographs with orthogonal views are helpful for figuring out what is going on with dystocia |
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Dystocia treatment in Cats
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-Digital manipulation can be done, but need to be careful!
-Oxytocin, no more than 3 doses --receptors become de-sensitized -Prostaglandin F2a --will lyse CL and help open cervix --sometimes takes too long, kittens may already be hypoxic -C-section |
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Puerperium in Cats
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-Normal discharge for 10 days
-Abnormal findings are rare --hemorrhage --retained palcenta or fetus --uterine prolapse --mastitis -Abnormal findings are iatrogenic, someone went in and tried to pull |
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Abnormalities of the Cat vulva and vagina
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-intersex conditions |
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Abnormalities of the uterus
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-Metritis
-Pyometra (progesterone phase) -Uterine torsion |
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Spayed Cat in Heat
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-Occur all of the time
-Cats spayed early come back years later in heat -Can happen just once, or regular cycles -Ovarian remnant is most common cause -Can also be due to congenital abnormality or ectopic ovarian tissue -Exogenous estrogen -Adrenal tumor |
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Ovarian remnant in cats
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-Vaginal cytology when animal is cycling
--look for epithelial cells -Check hormone levels -GnRH test -Exploratory surgery -Treat with surgery, remove remnant or tumor -medical treatment is also possible if cat is too old for surgery |
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Exogenous hormones and heat in cats
|
-Need accurate history
-Dx with vaginal cytology -Check hormone levels -GnRH test: progesterone and estradiol levels should be low and should not change -Tx by removing the source |
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Adrenal Tumors in cats
|
-Functional adrenal tumors are rare, but exist
-Adrenocortical adenomas and adenocarcinomas -Secrete estrogen, progesterone, testosterone -can be separate secretion or mixed secretion, can be just one or all at once! |
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Adrenal tumor in cats clinical signs
|
-Depend on hormones being secreted
-Hypercortisolism -Weight loss -Palpable mass in abdomen --most tumors are too small to palpate -Bilateral truncal alopecia due to progesterone production -Urine spraying with testosterone and estrogen production -Aggressive behavior with testosterone -Heat cycling with estrogen |
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Diagnosis of Adrenal tumors in Cats
|
-Complete adrenal panel
-Differentiate adrenal tumor from ovarian remnant --progesterone will not rise in response to GnRH with adrenal tumor -Ultrasound for a mass |
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Diseases of the Mammary glands in Cats
|
-Mastitis
--cats with lots of litters and lots of kittens -Fibroadenomatous hyperplasia |
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Fibroadenomatous hyperplasia
|
-Progesterone dependent
-Non-painful, firm swelling -Usually happens in younger queens after weaning -Biopsy? -DO NOTHING! Will go away on own when progesterone decreases --remove exogenous progesterone source -Can do surgery, but mammary glands are really big and hard to close |
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Mammary tumors in Cats
|
-3rd most common tumor in the female cat
-Usually malignant adenocarcinoma -Form, nodular mass -All mammary glands are equally affected -Metastases are common, especially to the lungs -Poor prognosis -Do not biopsy, just excise -Prevent by spaying early |
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Cat cycle suppression
|
-Megestrol acetate (Ovaban)
-Medroxyprogesterone acetate (Provera, in Europe) -GnRH agonists --implant (Deslorelin) -Ovariectomy --only if the cat has not gone through a heat cycle or pregnancy yet -OHE |
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Cat Mis-mating
|
-Estradiol cypionate
-Causes degeneration of the ova -Signs of estrus are prolonged -Side effects are common |
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Male Cat Physiology
|
-Puberty: 6 months -2 years
-Testes are descended at birth, but can be retracted during first weeks of life -Onset of puberty depends on light cycles and seasonality -Quarrantine new males for 2 weeks -3-4 females per male -FeLV and FIV testing is important |
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Cat semen collection
|
-Train the tom
-Electroejaculation -Urethral catheterization -Epididymal slicing after orchiectomy/castration -Artificial insemination (not common, only really for large cats) -Semen freezing |
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Sperm Evaluation Parameters for Cats
|
-Volume (0.3ml max)
-Concentration -Sperm/ejaculate -Motility (56-85%) -Normal morphology (38-95%) |
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Breeding abnormalities from the Male Cat
|
-Inadequate light cycles
--gives impression of infertility -Chromosomal abnormalities --male calico cat -Psychological issues |
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Issues with the Male cat Penis and Prepuce
|
-Hair rings
-Trauma, chemical burns -Persistent frenulum: causes penis to be bent over --Tx: pull apart with hemostats -Diphalia -Phimosis, paraphimosis -Priapism |
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Diphalia
|
-2 penises
|
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Abnormalities with Cat Prostate
|
-Neoplasia
-Paraprostatic cysts -Prostatic abscesses -Squamous metaplasia -Very very rare |
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Abnormalitis with cat bulbourethral gland
|
-Cystic changes
-Invasion of inflammatory cells associated with cystitis |
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Abnormalities of Cat Testes
|
-Anorchia: absence of testes
--uncommon in cats -Hypoplasia (associated with genetic abnormalities) -Atrophy or necrosis -Aplasia -Orchitis |
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Cat Cryptorchidism
|
-Equal incidence of unilateral and bilateral
-Mostly inguinal -If bilateral, abnormality of sexual differentiation -Retained testicle will atrophy, does not normally get neoplasia --opposite from the dog -Do not breed cryptorchid cats! |
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Male behavior in neutered cats
|
-Cryptorchid
-Adrenal tumor -Exogenous hormones -Check penis for spines -Measure testosterone --difficult hormone to measure, normally very low --may need to use GnRH stimulation test |
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Male Cat Sterilization
|
-Orchiectomy, remove testes
-GnRH agonists --Deslorelin implants, temporary solution -Progestagens |
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Early Neuter in cats
|
-Downsides to an early neuter?
-If anesthesia is appropriate and animal is healthy, there are no down-sides to early neuter -If neutered before sexual maturity, cat will have increased growth |
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Cat Accessory Sex Glands
|
-Prostate gland
-Bulbourethral gland |
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Dog accessory sex glands
|
-Prostate gland only
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Male Dog Physiology
|
-Testicles descend by 10 days to 4 weeks, 6 months maximum
--inguinal canal closes and testicles cannot descend -Puberty is 6-24 months of age --average is 10-12 months --Puberty marks start of spermatozoa in ejaculate |
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Hormones in the Male Dog
|
-Controlled by GnRH on the hypothalamus
-Affects pituitary, secretes LH and FSH -FSH self-regulates itself with inhibin -LH self-regulates with testosterone --testosterone is negative feedback on LH and GnRH -Leydig cells from testosterone positively feedbacks on INhibin, which negatively feeds back onto FSH |
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Sprem Development in the Dog
|
1. Proliferation phase: spermatogonia mitosis in seminiferous tubules
--stem cells are replenished 2. Meiotic phase: haploid spermatids form --happens in seminiferous tubules 3. Differentiation phase: head piece, acrosome, mid-piece, and flagellum are formed --in seminiferous tubules 4. Maturation: in epididymis --sperm becomes capable of forward motion and able to bind to ovum |
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Physical Exam of Male dog for Breeding
|
-Signalment
-General history -Reproductive history -General PE -Reproductive exam and semen collection --collect semen before you do anything uncomfortable to the dog! |
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Infertility in the Male Dog
|
-less than 10% recover from infertility
-Do not know that much about it, don’t know how to fix it |
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Dog Semen Evaluation
|
-Observe libido
-Examine penis during erection -Observe fractions --1st fraction: clear pre-sperm --2nd fraction: cloudy sperm fraction --3rd fraction: clear prostatic fraction, LOTS of prostatic fluid |
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Dog Semen parameters
|
-Volume: 1-30ml
-Milky white color, cloudy -more than 70% progressively motile -More than 80% should have normal morphology -300-2,000 million spermatozoa per ejaculate --depends on the size of the dog -Check for other cells (RBCs, WBCs, neoplasia) -Microbial culture and sensitivity |
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Infertility in the Dog
|
-Failure to achieve erection
--psychological, pain, androgen insufficiency, immaturity, no stimulation -Discipline issues -Failure to ejaculate --psychological, pain, immaturity, no stimulation -Sympathetic neuropathies: degenerative myelopathy or spinal cord injuries -Failure to achieve normal copulation --immaturity, pain, overuse, psychological, persistent frenulum |
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Abnormal sperm in the Dog
|
-Common reason for infertility in dogs
-Aspermia, no sperm -Azoospermia: no mobile sperm -Oligospermia: fewer sperm than expected -Hematospermia: blood in sperm -Teratozoospermia -Sperm agglutination: anti-sperm antibodies -Asthenospermia: sperm not moving or not moving in right direction -Infection or inflammation -Genetics |
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No sperm in dog ejaculate
|
-Check urine, sperm may be ejaculated retrograde
--will see sperm in urine --can treat with medication -Make sure you have a full collection --measure ALP -If ALP is high in collection, know you have entire collection |
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Causes of Infertility In the Dog
|
-Prepuce
-Penis -Prostate -Semen/testis/epididymis -Indirect causes |
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Penis and Prepuce in the Dog as cause for infertility
|
-Hypospadias: prepuce is not formed properly
-Intersex -Small prepucial opening -Balanoposthitis -Phimosis -Paraphimosis -Priapism -Penile Trauma |
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Balanoposthitis
|
-Mucosal inflammation of the penis and prepuce
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Phimosis
|
-Inability to extrude the penis
-Can be due to stenosis, trauma, persistent frenulum |
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Paraphimosis
|
-Penis cannot be withdrawn, won’t go back into sheath
-Can be due to hair rings, congenital disorders -Treat with lube! -Hyperosmolar solution can be used to reduce swelling -Surgery in worse cases |
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Priapism
|
-Persistent erection
-Common in older dogs with nerve problems -Usually not a full erection |
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Penile trauma in Dogs
|
-Very common
-Breeding -Jumping fences -Clinical signs: deviation of the penis, pain, dysuria, hematuria, pain, crepitus, pain, bladder distention -Dx: careful palpation and radiographs |
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Issues with Canine Penis and Prepuce
|
-Urethral prolapse:
--young, brachycephalic breeds --can be due to infections or sexual arousal --can be due to neoplasia -Infections -Neoplasia |
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Neoplasia of the canine Penis and Prepuce
|
-Papilloma
-Adenoma -TVT -Transitional cell tumors -Squamous cell tumors -Skin tumors |
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Canine Cryptorchidism
|
-Testicle does not descend by 6 months of age
--for genetic purposes, descended by 16 weeks -Can be retained in Inguinal ring, inguinal canal, abdomen -Autosomal recessive trait, do not breed cryptorchid dogs -1-10% incidence -More common in toy breeds -Unilateral is more common than bilateral -increased risk for testicular neoplasia in retained testicle --50% of tumors are sertoli cell tumors --50% of sertoli cell tumors produce estrogens, results in bone marrow suppression -Tx: surgery (hormones) |
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Orchitis and Epididymitis in Dogs
|
-Blood-testes-barrier
-bacterial infections (Brucella canis, E. coli, proteus, staph, others) -Can be direct infection or via hematogenous spread -Trauma -Vasculitis due to systemic disease, autoimmune disease, heat, cold -Dx: fine needle aspirate, biopsy, unilateral orchiectomy -Tx: antibiotics (doxycycline, fluoroquinolones) -Prognosis is poor if unilateral, poorer if bilateral |
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Dog Sperm Granulomas
|
-Clumps of sperm form granulomas
-Sit in epididymis and block pathway -Won’t see sperm, tubes are clogged -Spermatocele can form in epididymis |
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Trauma to the testes
|
-Can be due to contact dermatitis
-Scrotal tissue is inflamed or infected, heat has effect on testes and spermatogenesis -Disruption of blood-tested barrier -treatment and prognosis depends on severity |
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Dog Scrotal Hernias
|
-Herniation of infestine through inguinal canal into scrotum
-Unilateral is more common than bilateral |
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Testicular neoplasia in Dogs
|
-2nd most common neoplasia in male dogs
-Sertoli cell tumors from sertoli cells --secretes estrogen, results in paraneoplastic syndrome --most common in undescended testicles -Seminoma from germ cells, most common in inguinal retained testicles -interstitial cell tumor from Leydig cells --occasionally paraneoplastic syndrome |
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Clinical signs of Abnormal testicles in dogs
|
-Depends on underlying cause
-Licking -Atrophied or enlarged testicles -Unilateral or asymmetrical vs. symmetrical -Local vs. systemic disease -Painful vs. non-painful -Rule out scrotal dermatitis |
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Benign prostatic hyperplasia in dogs
|
-Common in older, intact, male dogs
-increase in estradiol causes increase in 5-a-DHT reductase, results in increase in size of prostate -Signs: hematuria, bloody penile discharge, blood in ejaculate -Symmetrical enlargement, non-painful -Dx: radiographs, ultrasound, cytology |
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Treatment for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
|
-Castration
-5-a-DHT reductase inhibitors (Finasteride), testosterone cannot bind to prostate anymore --best for breeding dogs -Progestagens -GnRH vaccine: conditionally licensed, chemical castration -Flutamide: blocks androgen receptors -GnRH analogs: cause down-regulation -Estrogens have too many side effects! |
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Prostatitis
|
-Older dogs with benign prostatic hyperplasia
--predisposing factor -Acute: painful --dog will have hunched stance, will not want to be collected or bred --dog is SICK -Chronic: asymptomatic, not outwardly sick --may see signs of UTI -Dx: palpation, ultrasound, radiology, cytology |
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Treatment for Dog Prostatitis
|
-Antibiotics
-Need to treat underlying benign prostatic hypertrophy |
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Dog prostatic abscesses
|
-Microabscesses coalesce
-Form one or more big abscesses -Rupture can be a disaster! Rupture into the abdomen and cause peritonitis |
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Dog Prostatic cysts
|
-Cause is unknown
-retention cysts or paraprostatic -Can be asymptomatic --may also see mineraliztion -Treat like benign prostatic hyperplasia |
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Prostatic neoplasia in Dogs
|
-Malignant Adenocarcinoma is most common
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Malignant Adenocarcinoma in Dogs
|
-More common in neutered dogs than intact dogs
-Older dogs -No hormonal influence -Clinical signs depend on severity --UTI, blood in urine -Metastasize to iliac lymph nodes, bladder, rectum, kidney, lung -Dx: cytology of prostatic fluid and palpation -Poor prognosis |
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Treatment for Malignant Adenocarcinoma
|
-No curative treatment, only palliative treatment
-Can do surgery -COX-1 inhibitoris -Cisplatin |
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Therapy for Infertility in Dogs
|
-Treat underlying cause!
-Have less than 10% chance of recovery -Evaluate semen for 2-3 months, want to evaluate mature sperm cells --60-75 day from germ cells to sperm cell maturation -Long term antibiotics? Steroids? |
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Neutraceuticals for infertility
|
-Most are anti-oxidants
-Glycoflex: can decrease sperm count -Vitamin C and vitamin E -Prosperm -Cell advance -Motility plus |
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Dog Sterilization
|
1. Surgical: orchiectomy or vasectomy |
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Dystocia
|
-Difficult birth
-Abnormal birth -Extended labor |
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Eutocia
|
-Easy, normal birth
-Safe labor |
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Superfecundation
|
-Successive fertilization of two or more oocytes
-Not common in mares -Common in sows, dogs, cats |
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Superfetation
|
-Fertilization with different a-synchronous ovulations
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Tocolytic
|
-Stops straining during parturition
-Clenbuterol -Oral form, takes 60-90 minutes to set-in |
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Ecbolic
|
-Helps uterus contract to get things out of it
-Fetus, fetal membranes, fluid |
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Parturition and nutritional state of the Dam
|
-Malnourished results in risk of dystocia
--also puts fetus at risk, if dam does not have enough nutrients fetus will not either --results in poor quality colostrum -Fat animals are also at risk for dystocia --fat is space-occupying |
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Ideal conditions for parturition
|
-In a pasture
--difficult restraint, hard to catch animal if something goes wrong -Grass is ideal footing for a neonate -Mares in small paddocks outside is most ideal --clean, outside, grass |
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Signs of Impending Parturition
|
-Udder development, buildup of colostrum
-Mucus from vulva in cows -Vulvar relaxation in mares -Ventral edema in the mare -Relaxation of ligaments around the pelvis |
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Udder development before Parturition
|
-Scaled on 0-3
-As parturition gets closer, teats “wax” --colostrum leaks out through teat orifice --Wax within 48 hours of giving birth -Some only 30 minutes or waxing -Maiden mares sometimes do not wax at all |
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Sheep impending parturition
|
-Relaxation of pelvic ligaments
-Cervical mucus plug -Udder development |
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Gestation Lengths
|
-cow: 280
-Mare: 340 -Ewe: 146 -Doe: 146 -Sow: 114 -Bitch: 63 -Queen: 63 -Gestation lengths change with hospitalization and stress of the animal |
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Initiation of Parturition
|
1. Fetal is stressed and fetal pituitary releases ACTH
-causes release of cortisol 2. Cortisol causes conversion of progesterone to estrogen in ewes -in cows, sows, does, causes more placental production of estrogen 3. Increased estrogen causes increased PGF2a production 4. PGF2a and estrogen causes luteolysis and uterine contractions 5. Uterine contractions cause release of oxytocin, causes uterus to contract even more 6. Fetus engages with cervix, causes ferguson’s reflex and abdominal contractions 7. Abdominal contractions and uterine contractions cause expulsion of the fetus |
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Estrogen during parturition
|
-Causes lubrication of reproductive tract
-Allows fetus to move easier out of birth canal |
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RElaxin production during parturition
|
-Produced due to high levels of PGF2a
-Causes pelvic ligament stretching and relaxing |
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Stage I parturition
|
-Cervical relaxation
-Uncoordinated uterine contractions start -Fetal positioning -Easily missed -Animal stops eating -Does will vocalize, especially if maiden does -Mares will have low-level colic signs |
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Stage II parturition
|
-Begins with rupture of the chorioallantois and release of allantoic fluid
-Active abdominal and uterine contractions -Expulsion of the fetus is the end -IN mare should be 15-20 minutes (easily dilated muscular cervix) -In cows should be 1-2 hours, heifers 2-4 hours |
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Stage III parturition
|
-Expulsion of fetal membranes
--in mare, within 3 hours -Uterine involution --can take up to weeks in certain species |
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Causes of Dystocia
|
-Fetal maternal disproportion (big calf in a small cow)
-Hereditary of congenital issues --malformed fetus --hydrocephalus, head can be too big to fit through birth canal -Nutritional or management -Infectious -Traumatic -Primary uterine inertia, uterus does not contract due to decrease Ca --high producing milk animals |
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Hydrocephalus in Foals
|
-Head is to big to fit through the birth canal
-Can also be contracted in front limbs -Usually has other abnormalities that will prevent foal from being “normal” |
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Malnutrition as a cause for dystocia
|
-Pelvis may not have grown to full potential
-Mare might not have enough energy to contract and push fetus out PPID and dystocia |
-Pituitary Pars Intermedia Disorder/Dysfunction
-“Equine cushing’s” -Mare is under high effects of cortisol, fetal cortisol cannot stimulate production of estrogen/PGF2a -Increased predisposition to placentitis -Muscle wasting prevents abdominal muscle action |
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|
History that could contribute to Dystocia
|
-Age
-Parity -Breed of the dam -Breed of the sire and obstetrical history -Breeding date -Previous dystocias -Clinical illness -Length of apparent stage of labor -Chorioallantois ruptured? If so when? -Straining |
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Hydrops Allantois
|
-Accumulation of fetal fluid
-Usually due to an issue with the fetus --fetus is not actively swallowing -Need to be careful, mare may have A LOT of fluid in her! -Can try to drain fluid via catheter, must be done slowly |
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Restraint during dystocia
|
-Use minimal restraint and light sedation
--animal may go down --have a protocol for anesthesia -Epidural anesthesia -General anesthesia --horse in dorsal recumbency --cow in lateral recumbency |
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Epidural Anatomy
|
-go into spaces between coccygeal vertebrae
|
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|
Physical exam of the dam during Dystocia
|
-TPR, MM
-Degree of abdominal enlargement -Exhaustion, recumbency --how long has parturition and pushing been going on? -vaginal discharge -External presence of fetal membranes or getus -Straining |
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|
Physical exam of the Fetus
|
-Presentation
-Position -Posture -Number of legs, orientation of soles of feet -Number of fetuses -Viability (alive or semi-alive or dead) -Look for meconium |
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Fetus leg flexion
|
-Forelimb: fetlock and hock flex in same direction
-Hindlimb: fetlock and hock flex in different directions |
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Meconium
|
-Indicates that the fetus has been very stressed in-utero
|
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Considerations during Dystocia
|
-Value of the dam vs. value of the neonate
-Future breeding potential -Sentimental value of the neonate and dam 3 tenents of Obstetrics |
1. Lubrication
2. Hygiene 3. Compassion |
|
|
j-lube
|
-Powder that add water to reconstitute
-Not used anymore |
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Vet LUBE
|
-Preferably sterile
-All-purpose -Administer with nasogastric tube and pump into the uterus |
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Obstetrical Chains
|
-Place above and below a joint, not in the joint
-Put chain on dorsal aspect of the limb --less chance of causing trauma -DO NOT attach anything mechanical to the chains! |
|
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|
Presentation
|
-Relation of the spinal axis of the fetus to the spinal axis of the dam
-Want anterior longitudinal presentation -Posterior longitudinal is also acceptable, if hind-limbs are extended -Transverse ventral is bad -transverse dorsal is bad |
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Position
|
-Position of the dorsum of the fetus in longitudinal presentation to the quadrants of the maternal pelvis
-Want dorsosacral, fetal back to maternal pelvis -Left dorsoilial: dorsum of the fetus is pointed to the left of the mare -Right dorsoilial: dorsum of the fetus is pointed to the right of the mare -Dorsopubic: dorsum of the fetus is on the pubis of the dam (upside down) -Right cephaloilial: |
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Ideal Fetal orientation
|
-Anterior
-Longitudinal -Dorsosacral -Head, neck, and forelimbs extended |
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Second ideal fetal orientation
|
-Posterior
-Longitudinal -Dorsosacral -hindlimbs extended --if flexed, breeched position |
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Mutations of Obstetrics
|
-Operations by which fetus is returned to a normal presentation, position, and posture
-retropulsion -Rotation -version -Extension of the extremities |
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Repulsion/Retropulsion
|
-Pushing the fetus cranially out of the pelvic canal into the abdominal cavity
-Deeper into the uterus |
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Rotation
|
-Turning the fetus on its long axis
-Turning from dorsopubic to dorsosacral |
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Version
|
-Rotation of the fetus on a transverse axis
-Switch from anterior to posterior -Uncommon procedure, uterus usually does not allow this much manipulation |
|
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Forced Extraction
|
-Assist all dystocias until the foal is all the way out
-Chains should be applied above and below the fetlock -Traction should be applied during abdominal contractions of the dam --do not just pull hard all of the time -Constantly monitor progress |
|
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|
Fetotomy
|
-Fetus is too big, has congenital abnormality
-Want to get fetus out ASAP, dam is valuable -Avoids expense and risk of C-section -Can prevent further trauma to dam -Reduces the size of the fetus -Can cause lacerations to the genital tract -Very time consuming -Can result in infection of the obstetrician and dam if fetus is septic, necrotic, or emphysematous |
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Using the fetotome
|
-Always have someone to stabilize the fetotome
-Do as quickly as possible -Wire only cuts in tension --not a huge risk to the dam, but don’t want any part of the uterus or cervix to be in the way -Remove head first, then forelimb -Forelimb cut should go under the scapula -Try to avoid thorax cut -Only 3 cuts in the horse MAX |
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Cesarean Section
|
-General anesthesia in mare, sow, bitch, queen
-In cow can do standing with local anesthesia -Ewes, does need to be sedated with epidural |
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Dystocia Aftercare
|
-Always check for more fetuses!
-Examine genital tract for lacerations and correct orientation -Give oxytocin to shrink uterus and control hemorrhage -Examine fetal membranes and give appropriate therapy for retained placenta -Can do post-manipulation uterine lavage |
|
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Post-dystocia oxytocin
|
-Helps get retained membranes out |
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|
Sexual differentiation- Female program
|
-Occurs when no SRY gene is present
-No testis differentiation factor produced, ovaries develop -Anti-mullerian hormone is not produced --duct forms tubular female genital tract |
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|
SRY gene
|
-Sex-determining region of the Y chromosome
-When present, causes fetus to be male -When not present, fetus is female |
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|
Anti-mullerian Hormone
|
-Hormone responsible for regression of the paramesonephric duct
-When present, causes fetus to be male -If not present, fetus follows female program |
|
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|
Hypothalamic Pituitary Gonadal Axis in Females
|
-GnRH is produced by surge center and tonic center
-GnRH is transported to the pituitary gland via hypothalamic-pituitary portal vascular system |
|
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|
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
|
-FSH
-LH |
|
|
|
Posterior pituitary hormones
|
-Oxytocin
--oxytocin is synthesized in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus |
|
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|
Hormones produced by ovarian follicles
|
-Estrogen
-INhibin |
|
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|
Estrogen effects on the Surge center
|
-High concentrations of estrogen:
-- positively feeds back on surge center --Causes increased GnRH production in surge center -Low concentrations of Estrogen: --inhibitory effect on tonic center in hypothalamus |
|
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|
Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal portal system
|
-Hypothalamus and pituitary are closely connected
-Small concentration of hormone from hypothalamus has big impact on pituitary -GnRH is delivered via portal vascular system --Axons from hypothalamic surge and tonic centers terminate on blood vessels in pituitary stalk |
|
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|
Posterior Pituitary
|
-Neurons from hypothalamus synapse into capillary complex within the posterior pituitary itself
-Hormone (oxytocin) is released directly into capillary plexus -Blood from capillary (with hormone) is delivered to target tissue |
|
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|
Defeminization of the Hypothalamus
|
-Exposure to estradiol during male development defeminizes hypothalamus
- fetal ovaries produce estradiol, estradiol cannot cross BBB -Fetal testes produce testosterone, can cross BBB --once in brain, is converted into estradiol |
|
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|
Dimorphism of the Hypothalamus
|
-LH is produced consistently in pre-pubertal male and female
-After puberty, female hypothalamus releases LH surge every 20 (ish) days |
|
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|
Puberty
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-The ability to accomplish reproduction successfully
-Occurs when enough GnRH is produced to act on anterior pituitary --causes production of high levels of FSH and LH -GnRH production and release is determining factor --affected by nutrition, exposure to environmental and social cues, and genetics -Puberty is start of gametogenesis, steroidogenesis, and development of reproductive tissue |
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GnRH Neuron Development factors
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-Nutrition: threshold body size and maturity |
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Transition to Puberty in female
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-Pre-pubertal Female has insufficient gonadal estradiol to stimulate the |
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Transition to Puberty in female
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-Pre-pubertal Female has insufficient gonadal estradiol to stimulate the GnRH surge center
-Low estradiol suppresses the hypothalamic GnRH tonic center -During puberty, tonic center of the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to negative feedback from estradiol --GnRH levels increase, causes FSH secretion increase --allows follicles to grow -As GnRH increases, follicular growth increases, more estradiol is produced by the ovary --Estradiol high levels has positive effect on surge center --LH surge is possible, ovulation is possible |
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Polyestrus species
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-Cow
-Queens -Pigs -Rodents |
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Seasonally polyestrus
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-Mare
-Sheep -Goats -Pigs -Elk |
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Long-day breeders
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-Breed when daylight is getting longer
-Spring |
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Short-day breeders
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-Breed when daylight is getting shorter
-Fall |
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Monoestrus
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-Dog
-Wolf -Fox -Bear |
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Reproductive seasonality in short-day breeders
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-Determined by ambient light and photostimulation of the retina
-increased retinal stimulation, signal is transmitted to suprachiasmatic nucleus --synapses of superior cervical ganglion -Axons from superior cervical ganglion go to pineal gland -Pineal gland produces melatonin -Low melatonin= low levels of GnRH production, low GnRH causes anestrus -More light = anestrus in short-day breeders -Shorter days, shorter photoperiod, more melatonin is produced, more GnRH is produced |
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Reproductive seasonality in long-day breeders
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-Long photoperiod (more light), low levels of melatonin produced, results in HIGH GnRH
--Cyclicity present -Short photoperiod (less light), high melatonin, LOW GnRH |
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Phases of the Estrous Cycle
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-Follicular phase: follicles are growing and eventually ovulate
--high estradiol --ends with ovulation -Luteal phase: functional CL is present --high progesterone --ends with luteolysis |
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Stages of the Estrous Cycle
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-Proestrus: after luteolysis, before full estrus
--progesterone is decreasing, estrogen is increasing -Estrus: progesterone is low, estrogen reaches peak levels --animal shows complete receptivity -Metestrus: ovulation, estrogen is decreasing, progesterone is increasing --ends when CL is fully functional -Diestrus: fully functional CL |
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Estrogen synthesis in Follicular stage
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-Synthesized via interaction of cells with antral follicles
-Theca interna cells bind LH, activates protein kinase that produces testosterone from cholesterol --Testosterone is transferred to granulosa cells -FSH binds surface receptor of granulosa cells, protein kinase produces estradiol from testosterone -Estradiol is transported to capillaries and acts systemically |
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Hormonal control of Follicular Dynamics
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-Small recruited follicles produce estradiol
-Estradiol has positive feedback on GnRH secretion --results in increased FSH and LH released from pituitary -FSH and LH stimulate follicular growth -Smaller follicles grow into medium follicles, one is selected --non-selected follicles shrink, become atretic --Selected follicle continues to grow and produce more estradiol -Estradiol stimulates GnRH secretion from hypothalamus -Follicles secrete inhibin, which decreases FSH from anterior pituitary and increases LH |
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Dominant Follicle hormone dynamics
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-Dominant follicle produces higher concentrations of estradiol
--eventually causes GnRH surge and LH surge -Produces Inhibin, inhibin causes atresia of other follicles --decreases amount of FSH that is released by pituitary -Stimulates release of LH |
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Follicular Waves
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-Occur throughout luteal phase
-Some have 2 waves, some have 3 waves, number depends on the animal -High progesterone levels in metestrus prevent LH surge needed for ovulation -All follicles in follicular waves become atretic -When luteolysis occurs and progesterone decreases, GnRH surge and LH surge allow follicle to ovulate |
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Effects of Estrogen
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-Caudal vagina: thickened mucosa
--protection for copulation -Cranial Vagina: mucus production --lubricant -Cervix: mucus production --lubricant, flushes everything out after copulation --contaminants and bacteria out -Uterus: uterine gland development and muscular tone --uterine milk production to support early embryo before implantation --EXCEPT in mare, estradiol causes decreased uterine tone in mare -Oviducts: mucus production, increased ciliary movement --helps egg and sperm movement -Increased blood flow: leukocyte delivery and edema --cleans out contaminants |
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Effects of LH surge
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-Increased local blood flow, causes increased hydrostatic pressure in the follicle
-Edematous theca interna starts to break down -Increased hydrostatic pressure in the follicle -Results in ovulation and formation of the CL |
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Ovulation changes in Ovary
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-Granulosa and theca interna cells become CL, collapse and intermingle
--Granulosa cells become large luteal cells, cause hypertrophy --Theca interna cells beceom small luteal cells, multiply -Granulosa and theca interna cells produce increased progesterone |
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Oocyte meiosis
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-Meiosis arrests in germ cells at primary ooyte stage, end of prophase
--protects DNA from potential damage -Oocyte undergoes 1st meiotic division and produces 1st polar body just before ovulation -After fertilization 2nd meiotic division occurs --ooyte has 2 polar bodies -Full division only after fertilization |
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Physiological effects of progesterone
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-Progesterone produced by CL
-Inhibits surge and tonic center of hypothalamus and anterior pituitary -Decreases uterine tone, inhibits contractility of myometrium -Positive impact on uterine glands, secrete uterine milk -Decreased production of GnRH -Decreased production of FSH and LH |
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Endometrial secretion of PFG2a
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-Ovary and posterior pituitary produce oxytocin
--oxytocin binds to receptors on endometrium -Oxytocin binding to endometrium results in PGF2a production -Countercurrent exchange system transports PGF2a from uterus to ovary via uterine vein and ovarian artery --high concentrations of PGF2a are delivered to ovary directly, not systemically distributed -Takes multiple PGF2a spikes for luteolysis |
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PGF2a transport in Mares
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-Transported systemically from uterus to ovaries
-circulating PGF2a concentration is higher in the mare -Mare CL is more sensitive to PGF2a, need higher concentration to cause luteolysis |
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Maternal recognition of Pregnancy
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-PGF2a pulses need to be subdued, need to maintain CL
-Recognition of pregnancy prevents CL lysis -In Ruminants, IFN-tau produced by blastocyst targets endometrial glands and prevents binding of oxytocin --prevents PGF2a production and release -In swine, blastocyst produces estradiol which allows PGF2a to be secreted into uterine lumen where it is destroyed before it can go into circulation -In horses, MRP mechanism is unknown --embryo migrates throughout the uterus |
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FSH for supra-ovulation
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-For oocyte retrieval for IVF
-Works well in cows, not in mares |
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GnRH for cycle manipulation
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-acts on pituitary stalk
-Increases secretion of LH and FSH -Sucromate -Can control when the mare ovulates, animal will ovulate within 24 hours or breeding |
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Progesterone for cycle manipulation
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-Can time estrus
-Allows estrus synchronization -Can use to prevent signs of heat -Can use to maintain a pregnancy, supports uterine glands |
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PGF2a for cycle manipulation
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-Lyses CL |
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Breeding Soundness Exam of the mare
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-Pre-purchase
-Pre-breeding -infertility assessment |
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History for Breeding Soundness Exam
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-General history and reproductive history are both important
-Use stocks for protection of the mare -Handler should be on the same side of horse as the examiner |
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Chemical restraint for breeding soundness exam
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-Acepromazine
-Xylazine -Use if there is a concern that someone will get hurt -Want a relatively short-acting tranquilizer |
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Topics to address in Breeding soundness Exam
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-External genitalia
-Palpation per rectum -Ultrasound per rectum -Aerobic culture of endometrial swab -Cytological evaluation of endometrial swab -Histology of endometrial swab -Manual and visual vaginal exam -Confirm that mare is nor pregnant before ANY vaginal manipulation!!! |
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Tail tone on breeding exam
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-Decreased tail tone indicates nerve damage
-Feel for clumps of exudate in the tail --indicates chronic vulvar discharge -Smell from stale urine indicates urine pooling in vagina |
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Windsucker test
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-Mare aspirates air from vestibule into vulva
-Indicates lack of muscle tone, lack of competency of lower vulvar tract -Do before the rectal exam |
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Oviducts on breeding exam
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-Cannot feel oviducts on routine palpation
-Hard to evaluate |
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Uterine fluid on Ultrasound
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-Assess character
-Look for air bubbles, pus, urine |
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Pregnancy exam in the mare
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-Clean vulva, wash, rinse, and pat dry
--not sterile, just clean |
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Aerobic culture results in Normal Mares
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-Uterus: 4% should have less than 10 colonies
-Vagina: 8% -Vestibule: 44% -Clitoral fossa: 84% -bacteria normally exists in caudal part of reproductive tract -Do not use lube that has anti-bacterial materials! Will kill sample! |
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Aerobic culture of Endometrial swab
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-Culture at 37C
-5% sheep RBC agar -MacConkey agar for gram- bacteria -Sabourand agar for fungus |
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Endometrial Grading assessment
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-Category I: 80-90% foaling rage
--will see minimal changes in endometrium -Category IIa: 50-80% foaling -IIb: 10-50% foaling -III: less than 10% foaling rate, very poor quality endometrium with severe changes |
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Visual examination of the cervix
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-Use speculum |
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Endocrine assay for Breeding Exam |
-Progesterone: CL |
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Streak ovaries/Ovarian Aplasia
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-TINY ovaries in a mare
-Aplastic ovaries -Not uncommon, happens somewhat regularly -XO mare, missing one of X chromosomes --“63XO mare” --“Turner’s syndrome” in humans -On palpation ovaries are very small and do not have any follicles -Uterus is very small, has never been stimulate by estrogen -Rest of reproductive tract is normal --can do IVF and give progesterone injections to have normal foal and parturition |
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Ovarian Atrophy
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-Medical issue
-Nutritional issue -parasitism -If animal has poor body condition due to health issues, ovaries will atrophy |
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Ovarian neoplasia in the horse
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-Granulosa cell tumor is most common
-First thing to change is the ovulation fossa, will not be able to feel on palpation --cells that line the ovulation fossa are the first to mutate -Tumor will be HARD, has a thick capsule --like a head in the abdomen -Most granulosa cell tumors are multi-cystic, cystic spaces are filled with cystic fluid --can see cystic spaces on ultrasound |
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Cystic spaces in ovary on ultrasound
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-Granulosa cell tumor
Theca interna neoplasia |
-Theca cells make androgens
-mare will act like a stallion -Commonly involved with Granulosa cell tumor |
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Granulosa cell tumor behavior
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-Anestrus due to lack of steroids
-Nymphomania due to lack of steroids --lack of progesterone -Stallion like behavior due to increased androgens --only happens if there is theca cell involvement -GCT produces inhibin, causes regression of other follicles and other ovary --contralateral ovary will be atrophied, small and inactive |
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Diagnostic tests for Granulosa Cell Tumor
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-Clinical examination
--enlarged ovary that is hard and no palpable ovulation fossa --contralateral ovary is small and inactive -Testosterone is increased (48% of cases) -Progesterone is decreased -Inhibin is increased (80% of cases) -Mullerian inhibiting hormone is increased (98% of cases) --granulosa cells make MIH -Histologically cystic spaces will be lined by stacks of granulosa cells |
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Teratoma
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-LOTS of different cell types and tissue types
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Ovarian Hematoma
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-Follicle becomes filled with blood
-Follicular fluid has anti-coagulant properties -Occurs more often when mare has a lot of follicles -Shrinks in size over time -Opposite ovary should cycle normally |
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Hydrosalpinx
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-Fluid in the oviduct
-Common reason for infertility in sheep and sows, very rare in the mare -Oviduct and ampulla become distended, looks like it is part of the ovary |
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Paraovarian Cysts
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-form in mesonephric duct remnants
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Cyst in ovulation fossa
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-Can occur in older mares
-Need to worry about cyst occluding the fossa |
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Fimbrious cyst
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-In infundibulum
-Can get big and heavy, pulls infundibulum away from the ovulation fossa |
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Endometritis
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-Most common cause of infertility in the mare
-Mare has muscular cervix and stallion has musculo-cavernous penis -During copulation all sorts of stuff is blasted into the uterus -Uterus has to mechanically expel and clean debris, calm down inflammatory response for pregnancy -Endometrial capillaries filled with neutrophils should clear debris -Poor uterine clearance, poor inflammatory response, and poor cervical tone predisposes the mare to endometritis -Fluid in the uterus is a clinical sign of infection |
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Signs of Endometritis
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-Fluid in the uterus
-Endometrial edema during diestrus -Endometrial gland filled with neutrophils -Endometrium loaded with lymphocytes, indicates uterine infection -Granuloma formation |
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Organisms causing Endometritis in the Mare
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-B-hemlytic streptococcus equi zooepidemicus
-E. coli (location of rectum and vulva) -Pseudomonas aeruginosa -Klebsiella pneumonia -Candida yeast -Fungi (aspergillus, mucor) |
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Factors predisposing mare to fecal contamination
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-Thin body condition
-Recessed anus -Poor conformation -Poor padding of perineum |
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Endomeritis Diagnosis
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-Uterine swab and culture
-Uterine lavage culture -Endometrial biopsy --will indicate how deep the infection is |
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Endometritis Treatment
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-Get uterus to contract and clear debris!
-Uterine lavage (clears infection) --use sterile saline, NOT antiseptics! -Oxytocin causes contractions for 20 minutes -Prostaglandin causes contractions for 4 hours -Exercise mare for mechanical evacuation of the uterus -once uterus is clear/evacuated, can give antibiotics in-utero |
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Streptococcal endometritis treatment
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-Ceftiofur (Excede) systemic treatment
-Give deep IM at 2 injection sites -2 doses, 4 days apart -Provides antimicrobial effect for 10 days -Still have to clean/clear uterus first! |
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Chronic endometritis
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-Due to biofilm formation
--matrix of material protects bacteria from body’s defenses -N-acetylcysteine (Mucomyst) breaks down mucus and biofilm --dilute in 120 ml sterile saline -Give as uterine infusion -uterine lavage after 12-24 hours of treatment -Repeat if there is lots of debris present |
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Periglandular Fibrosis
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- Fibrosis around endometrial glands
-traps glandular secretions and prevents them from getting into the uterus -No secretions/uterine milk, no support for embryo before implantation -Mare cannot maintain a pregnancy |
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Cystic Glandular Distention
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-Active glands
-Normal in pregnant mares -NOT normal in non-pregnant mares |
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Endometrial/uterine cysts
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-Lymphatic or glandular cysts
-Most are lymphatic, distended lymphatic ducts -Some stay in lacunae, some stick out into the uterus -Detrimental to fertility -If pedunculated, may interfere with early conceptus mobility -If nor pedunculated, may not need to remove -Glandular cysts are much less common than lymphatic cysts |
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Uterine Transluminal Adhesions
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-can result from endometritis treatment with caustic substance |
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Pyometra
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-Uterus is distended with pus and persistent CL
-In horse is usually due to cervical abnormalities -Chronic cervical issue, infection will recur |
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Other issues in Horse Uterus
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-Uterine Hematoma (foaling injury)
-Uterine neoplasia --adenocarcinoma |
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Contagious Equine Metritis
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-Not present in the US
-Causes severe uterine infections -Venereal disease, passed from mare to stallion -Taylorella bacteria -Mare will have profuse vaginal discharge |
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Cervical laceration in the Mare
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-BIG deal!
-Defect in the tube of the cervix -When cervix contracts, whole thing opens up more instead of contracting down -If 66% is still intact, may not need surgery -Diagnose via palpation! Important to palpate the entire cervix |
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Tissue flap in Vagina
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-Failure of duct regression during development
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Non-patent Hymen in the Mare
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-Uterine secretions will build up and push on hymen
-Treat by rupturing dorsally |
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Bloody vulvar discharge in mare
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-Usually varicose vessel rupture in late pregnancy
-Treat by ligation, cautery with laser -Can use preparation H (ephedrine) |
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Vulvular Tumors in the mare
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-Can remove with laser
-SCC is a common mass on perineum --can smell due to urine collection |
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Large clitoris in the mare
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-Presence of androgens during development of the female |
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Ovulation in the Mare
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-INfandibulum “catches” the oocyte and transfers to ampulla
--ideally sperm are waiting in the ampulla -If no fertilization occurs, egg degenerates in ampulla -If fertilized, PGE2 from the embryo changes the character of the isthmus and allows movement of the embryo from ampulla to uterus --PGE2 allows embryo to be transported into the uterus |
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Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy in Mares
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-Embryo must touch all of the endometrium for mare to know she is pregnant
-Takes place from day 0 to day 14 -After day 14, oxytocin release from ovary causes lPGF2a release from uterus and luteolysis --progesterone decreases, pregnancy cannot be maintained -Movement is CRITICAL for mare to know she is pregnant |
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Equine Embryo
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-Inner Cell Mass
-Trophoblast cells will form fetal membranes -Gradual increase in size o embryo from day 10 – day 16 -Embryo is mobile until day 16, at day 16 lodges in the uterine horn -Day 17-24, no growth in size, development of embryo proper -Day 21, can see embryo proper on US -Day 24, development of allantoic cavity -Day 25, can see heartbeat -Day 28, yolk sac and allantoic cavity are same size -Day 40-45, umbilicus lengthens and fetus goes from dorsal area to vental or central area |
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Equine placenta classification
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-Microcotyledonary
--microvilli interdigitate with microcaruncles --chorion and endometrium interdigitate -Diffuse -Epitheliochorial -Non-deciduate |
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Chorionic Girdle
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-Goes around top of conceputs
-Cells invade into endometrium, form endometrial cups |
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Endometrial cups
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-Formed from chorionic girdle, form a ring
-Present from day 40-120 -Hormonally active --produce equine chorionic gonadotropin --sacs filled with ECG -Encourages mare to form multiple CL on ovaries -Causes lymphatic immune reaction in mare that destroys the cups -Cups disappear by day 120 |
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Signs of Pregnancy in a mare
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-Elongated, closed cervix
--closes due to progesterone --elongates due to estrogens from fetus -Unable to palpate endometrial folds, increased tone of the uterus -Increased uterine tone -Palpable conceptus (25-28 days) |
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Placental progesterone in the Mare
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-By day 120 progesterone from the CL declines
-Progesterone production is completely by the placenta -Progesterones will increase in late gestation |
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Pregnancy Diagnosis in the mare
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-Palpation per rectum
--elongated, tight cervix --no endometrial folds due to increase in uterine tone -Ultrasound per rectum -Transabdominal ultrasound -Increased levels of Equine Chorionic gonadotropin between days 40 and 120 -Estrone sulfate |
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Mare gestation length
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-11 months, 350 days
-Quite variable -321-365 days is “normal” -Influenced by the time of year of gestation, sex of the fetus |
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Placental retention in the horse
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-Tip of non-gravid horn is often retained
-Fetal membranes should rupture over the cervical star, where the membranes attach to the cervix -Allantoic surface will be smooth, side closer to the fetus -Chorionic side will be red velvet, side towards maternal endometrium |
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Induction of Parturition in the Mare
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-Tough due to variable gestation length
-Do not want to induce an immature foal -Induction can be damaging to mare abdominal wall |
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Indications for Induction of Parturition in the Mare
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-Ventral hernia
-Ruptured prepubic tendon -Prolonged Gestation (hard to tell without exact breeding dates) -Medical problem --heart failure, tumors, etc. -Mares needing assistance in parturition -Nurse mare preparation |
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High-risk mares
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-History of hypoxic foals
-Premature placental separation -Abdominal hernia |
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Criteria for Induction of parturition in Mares
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-More than 330 days pregnant
--sometimes this is still too early -Mammary development -Colostrum production -Cervix is slightly relaxed -Anterior presentation of the foal |
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Fluprostenol
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-Drug for induction of parturition
-Does not take action for a few hours -Best not to use! |
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Dexamethasone for Induction in Mares
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-Takes DAYS
-Can use in Combination -May help mature lungs of the fetus |
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Oxytocin for Induction in Mares
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-Best choice
-Can give via may routes -Causes uterine contractions -Happens FAST, foal will be delivered in 30 minutes -Can be combined with dexamethasone |
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Uterine Involution in mares
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-Passage of the placenta needs to happen
-Removal of the uterine fluid -Decrease in the size of the uterine musculature -Repair of the endometrium -Happens rapidly, by day 6 postparturition the endometrium is back to normal --ready for another pregnancy! -7-9 days after parturition will have a “foal heat” |
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Retained Placenta in the Mare
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-Should pass in 3 hours, 8 hours max
-Can look on ultrasound for retained membranes --may not be able to see if they are tightly adhered -Retained membranes can lead to metritis, endotoxemia, laminitis, and death |
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Retained membrane Sequelae
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-Metritis
-Endotoxemia -Laminitis -Death |
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Treatment for Retained Placenta in mares
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-Oxytocin
-Antibiotics (prevents endotoxemia) -NSAID (banamine) -Do not manually peel off membranes, let them pass on their own! -Can lavage with sterile saline if needed |
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Rupture of a major vessel during parturition
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-Middle uterine artery is most common
-Can rupture into the abdomen, broad ligament, or uterine lumen -Bleed into broad ligament has best chance for survival |
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Uterine prolapse in Horses
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-Not common
-Worry most about major vessel rupture and hemorrhage -Need to be sure to put horns back into proper position -treat with oxytocin and antibiotics |
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Trauma to underlying musculature during parturition
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-Can be due to foal hoof
-Clean and heal via 2nd intention |
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Non-infectious Abortion in Mares
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-Twins is most common non-infectious cause for abortion
--placental insufficiency, blood supply cannot oxygenate both fetuses -If there is a large a-villous are on placenta, look for 2nd fetus -Umbilical cord torsion can also cause abortion --usually happens around 6 months or gestation |
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Equine Viral Abortion
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-Rhinopneumonitis, EHV-1
--vaccinate mare at 5, 7, 9 months of gestation --no vaccine is 100% effective --Will see inclusion bodies in lung tissue -Equine Viral Arteritis --vaccinate before breeding -Equine Infectious Anemia --do coggins, cull affected! -Limit exposure! |
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Bacterial Abortion in Mares
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-Ascending placentitis
--streptococcus zooepidemicus --E. coli --pseudomonas aeruginosa --Klebsiella pneumonia --Salmonella -Diffuse placentitis: septicemia due to leptospira interrogans --bacteria in circulation go up umbilical cord into fetus -Contagious Equine Metritis (reportable disease!) |
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Avoiding Ascending Placentitis |
-Maintain adequate body condition in mares
-Maintain perineal competency -Surgically correct vulva defects -Avoid vaginal exams during pregnancy -Can diagnose with ultrasound, measure thickness of the endometrium |
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Fungal Placentitis |
-Aspergillus |
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Ethics of Dog Breeding
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-Should I breed my dog?
--common question from many clients -Responsible breeder vs. puppy mill -Expense -Profit -legal issues -Veterinarians have a big impact on educating responsible owners and responsible breeders |
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Reasons to breed a dog
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-Good representation of the breed
--temprament, structure -Healthy both physically and mentally -Interest in furthering the breed --produce quality, not quantity pets -Understand that breeding is not about making money -Able to be financially and mentally prepared for what can go wrong -Prepared for assuming responsibility for puppies for LIFE |
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Reasons to NOT breed a dog
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-Experiencing the “miracle of life”
-Can’t afford to spay -Love the dog so much you want another one -Paid a lot for the dog, want to make money from puppies |
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Qualities of a responsible breeder
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-Quality not quantity
-Careful consideration to health issues, genetic concerns, temperament, soundness, appearance -Seek veterinary advice for genetic counseling --pre-breeding screening --reproductive services |
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Endocrinology of reproductive hormones
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-Hypothalamus: GnRH
-Pituitary: LH and FSH --prolactin --oxytocin -Gonads (ovaries) --estrogen, progesterone --inhibin --oxytocin, relaxin -Uterus: prostaglandin -Placenta: relaxin |
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Puberty in female dogs
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-Onset varies, 6-24 months
--depends on breed --Average onset is 10-12 months -In general larger dogs reach puberty later -First estrus can be irregular --do not judge fertility based on first heat -Split heat and silent heats occur more commonly at first heat -Nor recommended to breed on first heat -Delayed puberty is rare in the bitch -Working dogs may have later onset of first estrus -Induction of estrus can be sped up by housing with other cycling dogs -Cycle every 7 months |
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Dog estrus cycle length
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-Cycle every 7 months
-German shepherd dogs and rottweilers cycle every 4.5-5 months -Basenjis, Dingoes, and wolf crosses cycle yearly |
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Looking at heat cycles in dogs
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-Need to time accurately for AI and frozen semen
-Vaginal cytology -Vaginoscopy -Deep vaginal culture (not best approach) -Hormone assays --Progesterone, LH, estrogen -Relaxin assay -Infectious disease screening |
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Vaginal Cytology
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-Great way to check estradiol/estrogen levels
-“In the moment” check of estradiol levels, what the estradiol levels are at that time -Can check during proestrus -Cells in vaginal canal change based on estrogen levels in the heat cycle -Use Q-tip, glass slide, stain, and speculum |
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Vaginal canal in the dog
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-Goes dorsally first
-Cannot go straight in, need to go up and then in |
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Epithelial cell types on Vaginal Cytology
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-Parabasal cells: large stippled nucleus, rounded cytoplasm
--Dietrus -intermediate cells: stippled nucleus and more cytoplasm than parabasal cells --“fried egg” cells --proestrus/estrus transition or diestrus -Superficial cells: pyknotic nucleus and angular cytoplasm --“cornflakes” --estrus -Anuclear superficial cells: no visitble nucleus and angular cytoplasm --estrus -Basal cells: small and will not appear on a slide --anestrus -As estradiol levels increase, cells become larger and rounder and will stick to the slide |
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Vaginoscopy
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-Look at vaginal mucosa
-Evaluate the effect of estrogen on the vaginal epithelium -Evaluate vagina for sources of abnormal discharge or bleeding, masses, anatomical defects, foreign bodies -Rigid cystoscopies are ideal, pediatric proctoscope --Otoscope or syringe casing can be used but not ideal |
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Canine Estrus Cycle
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-Proestrus: 9 days
-Estrus: 9 days -Diestrus or pregnancy: 60 days --same time period regardless of whether animal is pregnant or not -Anestrus: 90-150 days |
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Proestrus in the dog
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-Average: 9 days, can range from 2-25
-Estrogen levels are increasing, gives changes in vaginal cytology -Follicular stage, follicles start to develop -Estradiol peaks at the end of proestrus -Progesterone and LH are low |
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Proestrus clinical signs and behavior in dogs
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-Male become attracted to the females
--females do not accept mating -Vulva is swollen, edematous, firm -Bloody vaginal discharge |
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Vaginal wall of dog in proestrus
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-Vaginal mucosa appears light pink or white, edematous, moist, shiny
-Vaginal epithelium proliferates, wall thickens -RBCs diapedesis into tissue -Mixed cells on vaginal cytology --intermediate and superficial cells -Cells progress to more superficial cornified cells as estrus approaches -Lots of RBCs -Bacteria are normal, normal flora |
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Estrus in the dog
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-Average 9 days, can be 3-21 days
-Estradiol decreases, progesterone increases --initially progesterone is from pre-ovulatory follicles, animal has not ovulated yet (no CL) -LH surge causes ovulation -Primary oocyte is released 2 days after LH surge --oocyte needs additional 2 days to mature for fertilization -Breed dog 4-6 days after initial LH surge |
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Estrus behavior in the dog
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-Dog will flag, hold tail to the side, stand to be bred
-Vulva is edematous and firm, but begins to soften -Vaginal discharge becomes more serosanguinous --not BLOODY discharge, |
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Vaginal cytology during estrus in the dog
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-100% cornified cells, superficial epithelial cells
-Fewer RBCs -Normal bacterial flora -Vaginal cytology cannot be used to predict ovulation time prospectively! --cytology is only accurate in the moment --need other methods for precise timing of ovulation -Vaginal wall becomes very thick, drier, and wrinkled (crenulated) -Pale to white in color |
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Diestrus in the Dog
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-Lasts 55-60 days if the dog is pregnant
--60-80 days if dog is not pregnant --Allows for all dogs to lactate at the same time, all dogs can be “wet nurses” -LOTS of neutrophils, need to clean up debris -Progesterone dominant phase -Diestrus ends when progesterone drops below 2ng/ml -Hypertrophy and hyperplasia of uterine glands -Cervix constricts, vaginal secretions become mucoid and uterus is more flaccid -Ovulation occurs 5-7 days before 1st day of diestrus -Whelping occurs 57 day from onset of diestrus -Dog will not stand for breeding (some do) --behavior is not the best way to tell if animal is in heat |
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Diestrus vaginal cytology in Dogs
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-Onset is marked by sharp decline in superficial cells
-Sudden appearance of WBCs -Intermediate and parabasal cells reappear -Cellular profile can change within 1 day, very sudden change -Vaginal wall becomes thinner and pinker, can see through mucosa to blood vessels --no longer edematous |
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Anestrus in the Dog
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-Length is variable, average 4.5 months
--ranges from 3-9 months -Prolonged period of sexual rest -Dog needs at least 150 days between heat cycles for uterus to completely repair from last heat cycle --Required endometrial repair -Low estrogen -Low progesterone -No characteristic behavioral changes |
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Clinical signs of anestrus in the dog
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-No characteristic changes
-No vaginal edema -No vaginal discharge -Vaginal wall is thin, pink mucosa -Vaginal cytology will show few numbers of parabasal and possible intermediate cells --really nothing much |
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Measuring LH in dogs
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-Measuring LH would allow prediction of when dog is going to ovulate
--can then predict when the breed the dog -Test is VERY expensive! -LH peak is very short, can be only 12 hours -Progesterone test is easier, less expensive -progesterone increase indicates that dog will ovulate in 2 days |
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2-2-2 rule in dogs
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-Progesterone is over 2ng/ml
-Dog will ovulate 2 days later -Breed dog 2 days later |
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Differences in estrous cycle in dogs
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-Follicle produces estrogen just prior to ovulation
-Primary oocyte is ovulated and has to mature before fertilization can occur --needs to go through 2nd meiotic division --Cannot be fertilized right away -No pregnancy recognition signal in the mother --cannot use progesterone, will be elevated regardless --all dogs go through a long diestrus period, regardless of pregnancy or not |
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Fertility exams in the dog
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-Always do a physical exam before fertility exam
-Reason for the exam --routine, infertility, pre-breeding -Age: young, mature, old -Health history: vaccinations, medications, supplements -Lifestyle: Diet, level of work, Stress -Breed, family, and kennel history --reproductive history of males and females, genetic problems of the line -Breeding history and mating behavior --ovulation timing, method of breeding, semen evaluation, pregnancy evaluation -Previous fertility evaluations -Infectious disease testing (brucellosis) |
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Brucella Canis
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-Never forget to test before breeding a dog! All intact dogs should be tested
-Dog can be exposed by licking discharge -Test a dog before every breeding -Test male dogs before every breedings, or at least every 3-6 months -Test and isolate new additions to the kennel -If dog is contaminanted, can do AI -Most often responsible breeders have negative dogs, but should be tested |
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Things to be sure of before breeding a dog
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-Up to date on vaccinations and parasite prevention
-infectious disease screening --Brucella canis -Healthy animal -Routine pre-breeding vaginal cultures in healthy dogs are unnecessary -Investigate into infertility concerns and early intervention to help preserve future fertility |
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Brucella canis testing
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-Rapid slide agglutination test (RSAT)
--low incidence of false negatives, high incidence of false positives -PCR is being developed -Positive tests should always be confirmed by another testing method --Agar gel immunodiffusion assay (AGID) |
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Diagnosing Brucella canis
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-Use RSAT to screen and identify negative animals
-Use AGID cell wall antigen test to confirm disease in positive samples -Culture can be unreliable -PCR is being developed |
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Pre-breeding vaginal cultures in dogs
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-Not recommended for healthy dogs
-Frequently requested by breeders -Vagina is not sterile, will always have bacteria! -Role of bacteria in infertility in dogs is not well-understood --Bacteria from infertile dogs is the same isolated from normal dogs -Only Brucella canis bacteria is associated with infertility in dogs |
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Indications for vaginal culture in dogs
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-Only indicated in presence of clinical disease
-Most useful when a pure culture is obtained -Culture is performed with a double guarded culturette -Take sample near cervix in anterior vagina -Need special request culture for mycoplasma and ureaplasma |
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Breeding and ovulation timing in Dogs
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-Dog ovulates primary oocytes
-Oocyte maturation happens over 2 days -Mature oocytes survive for 2-3 days -Sperm must undergo capacitation (7 hours) before fertilization -Timing depends on availability of stud dog, history of the dog’s heat cycles, type of semen (frozen vs. chilled vs. fresh) |
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Timing methods for ovulation in the dog
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-Behavior (least accurate)
-Vaginal cytology -Vaginoscopy -Progesterone assay -LH testing (most accurate) |
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Ovulation behavior in dogs
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-Not very accurate for timing, gives ballpark
-Can ovulate 2 days before to 6 days after onset of behavioral signs of heat -Poorly correlated with ovulation -Not to be used for precise breeding timing -Method used by most breeders! |
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Most common breeding strategy
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-Breed dog every other day as long as she will stand for heat
-Success is based on the fact that fresh semen can live for 7-9 days in the female reproductive tract -Some male dogs are better than others -Inappropriate method for veterinarians |
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Vaginal cytology and vaginoscopy
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-Used as indirect measurement of estradiol
-Poor correlation with ovulation day -Best if used with progesterone testing -Can be used retrospectively -Ovulation occurs 5-7 days before first day of cytological diestrus -Whelping date is 57 days from first day of estrus |
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Progesterone assay in dogs
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-IN-house assay kits:
--low cost, convenient, quick --Only gives high/low, no trends --Not ideal for times when the exact day of ovulation is needed (frozen semen use) -Quantitative measurement: --very accurate when run in a series --need to send it away, need lab that gives results in 12-24 hours --Needs to be interpreted by someone who is experienced |
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Progesterone levels in the dog
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-As soon as 2ng/ml, LH peak
-2 days later will have ovulation -2 days later should breed the dog -Breed dog 4 and 6 days after the LH peak with semen of excellent quality and appropriate quantity for optimal results |
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LH levels in dogs
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-Test when the LH surge is expected
-Must be run every 12 hours to be completely sure to catch the LH peak -Very accurate indicator of ovulation -Can miss the LH peak if tested too late -Best used with progesterone levels -Can get expensive! |
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Secret to success in breeding dogs
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-TIMING!
-Most perceived infertility in the dog is related to poor breeding and ovulation timing --not true infertility! |
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Dog mating
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-Involves a “tie”
-Mate an the penis gets so swollen it gets stuck in the vaginal canal -Can be tied for 45 minutes -Penis flips sideways when erect --“stepping over” flips penis sideways -Lots of prostatic fluid pushes semen forward through long vaginal canal |
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AI in dogs
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-Semen can be fresh, chilled, or frozen
-Best success with fresh semen -Semen is usually deposited in the vaginal canal -250 million motiles is minimum needed -Can put poor quality semen directly in the uterus, but not recommended --only need 100 million normal motile sperm |
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Surgical insemination of the dog
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-Put semen right into the uterus
-Can do with fresh, chilled, or frozen semen -Laparotomy -Laparoscopy -Illegal in some countries due to welfare concerns |
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Trans-cervical insemination
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-Endoscopy to put semen in cervix
-Can be done in a non-anesthetized dog in standing heat -Need to be very skilled, cervix is hard to find, sits at an angle and vagina has a blind end |
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Estrous suppression in dogs
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-OHE
-Progestagens -Androgens -GnRH agonists --long-acting implants (put in a recognizable place, will degrade) --can suppress estrogen for 2 years -Avoid hormone methods in breeding dogs, will mess up cycles |
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Estrous induction in the dog
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-Needs to be a least 150 days after last estrus cycle
-Gonadotropins (GnRH agonists) -Estrogens -Dopamine agonists (shortens cycle with prolactin) -Prostaglandins |
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Normal pregnancy in the dog
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-Fertilization occurs in oviduct
-Sperm stick around in tract for 7-9 days -Embryo enters uterus on day 8 -Implantation at day 16-day 18 -Superfecundation -Whelping date is 63 days from ovulation --can range from 58-71 days |
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Superfecundation in dogs
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-Multiple sires for one whelping can happen |
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Placentation in the dog
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-Endotheliochorial: fetal epithelium is next to maternal endothelium
-Zonary -Marginal hematomas --can see through uterine wall -Greed pigment is uteroverdin |
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Progesterone during dog pregnancy
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-Maintains pregnancy
-All progesterone comes from CL -needs to be 2ng/ml MINIMUM -Progesterone cannot be used for pregnancy diagnosis --high progesterone whether dog is pregnant or not -Temperature drop before whelping |
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Prolactin in dog pregnancy
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-Luteotrophic
-Concentration is inversely related to progesterone levels -Need a long progesterone phase for prolactin production -Prolactin will increase when progesterone drops |
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Relaxin in dog pregnancy
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-Pregnancy specific hormone
-Produced by the placenta -ONLY hormone that can be used to detect pregnancy in the dog -Starts to rise 21-24 days into pregnancy -Elevated throughout the pregnancy -Towards end of pregnancy will drop |
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Diagnosing pregnancy in dogs
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-Palpate: 21-28 days after ovulation
-Ultrasound: earliest and most accurate -Relaxin -Radiographs: after 42 days |
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Palpation for pregnancy diagnosis in dogs
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21-28 days after ovulation is best
-After 28 days cannot feel the difference between a pyometra and pregnancy -After 50 days can feel fetal bodies and movement -Accuracy is poor in a tense or obese animal |
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Ultrasound for pregnancy diagnosis in dogs
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-can look at individual fetuses
-earliest and most accurate, best after 24 days -possible at day 17 -NOT an accurate way to count fetuses -Can use ultrasound to estimate gestational ages |
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Relaxin for pregnancy diagnosis in dogs
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-Made by the fetal placenta
-measured in the serum -Possible to measure at day 21, better after 28 days -Does not assess viability of fetuses -Just indicates yes/no of pregnancy |
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Radiographs for pregnancy diagnosis in dogs
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-After 42 days when fetal skeletons mineralize
-before 42 days, uterus looks “enlarged” -Best method to evaluate number of fetuses --count skulls and spines, associate skulls with spines -Can estimate ages of fetuses -Also see signs of fetal death |
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Pregnancy events in the dog
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-2-5 days: fertilization
-16 days: embryo attachment in uterus -17 days: earliest view on ultrasound of vesicles -21 days: fetal swelling is first palpable -24 days: fetal heartbeat on ultrasound -21-28 days: palpation window -28 days: relaxin test positive -28-30 days: uterine enlargement visible on radiographs -28-35 days: palpable uterine swelling -42 days: calcification of skeletons, can radiograph -51-55 days: fetal pelvis visible on radiograph -57-61 days: fetal teeth and toes visible on radiograph -63 days: whelping |
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Signs of Parturition in the Dog
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-Decreased appetite
-Drop in body temperature -Presence of colostrum -nesting behavior -Restless, panting, anxious -Behavioral signs are not accurate for timing of labor |
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Stage I labor in the dog
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-Cervical dilation
-Variable duration, typically 6-12 hours -Increased estradiol and prostaglandins -Decreased progesterone -Uterine contractions (not visible) -Fetus starts to pressure cervix --ferguson reflex -Restless, panting, vomiting -Some dogs show signs, some dogs don’t show any signs |
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Stage II parturition in dogs
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-Expulsion of fetuses
-Variable duration, 6-12 hours -First pup appears within 4 hours -Green discharge before the birth of the first pup is an EMERGENCY! -Abdominal contractions are strong and coordinated -Fetuses normally present with head first (60%), feet first (40%) -Should see a pup every 30-60 minutes, can be 2 hours |
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Stage III labor in dog
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-Expulsion of the placenta
-Placentas should pass 5-15 minutes after each pup, placenta follows puppies -Mixed with stage II labor -Mom may eat placenta -May cause vomiting and diarrhea -If placenta is retained, can cause metritis |
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Oxytocin in Post-partum period in the dog
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-“Clean out shot” of oxytocin
--stimulates milk letdown, uterine contractions, helps with maternal behavior -Helps with milk letdown, does not help with milk production -Natural release occurs during nursing -Never give oxytocin if the cervix is closed or there is a dystocia where the puppy is stuck! -Oxytocin receptors decrease in 24-48 hours -NO OBSTRUCTIONS! |
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Uterine involution in dogs
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-60 days to return to pre-pregnancy size
-Complete uterine healing takes 120-150 days -May see lochia |
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Lochia
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-Normal vaginal discharge in dogs, leftover from whelping process
-Present for 3 weeks after whelping -Sero-mucoid and odorless -Pale brown to pale green color -May be slightly hemorrhagic |
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Pseudopregnancy in the dog
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-Progesterone levels are elevated after estrus regardless of whether the dog is pregnant or not
-Only get prolactin if progesterone is elevated over a long period of time -Allows non-pregnant dogs to be wet-nurses for other dogs -Not a disease or sickness, normal in dogs -Nesting, mothering, adopting inanimate objects |
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Cause of pseudopregnancy in dogs
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-Decline in progesterone and increase in prolactin
-Exacerbated by self-nursing, massage of mammary glands, hot packs on mammary glands, milking mammary glands -If animal is spayed during diestrus, can cause pseudopregnancy --due to sudden drop in progesterone |
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Treatment for Pseudopregnancy in dogs
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-Nothing! Just leave it and it should go away
-Progesterone is temporary and not a great idea -Minolerone (androgen) -Bromocriptine and Carbergoline (dopamine agonists) --causes increase in dopamine, decrease in prolactin, and decreased lactation -No predisposition to pyometra resulting from false pregnancy |
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Pregnancy Termination in Dogs
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-Immediately after a supposed breeding
-Only 1/3 of dogs get pregnant, can just wait and see if she got pregnant -Presence of sperm does not confirm breeding, lack of sperm also does not -Before day 35, abortion of fetuses -After day 35, expulsion of fluid or tissues -After day 55 fetuses may be alive -Has side effects, animal can get really sick |
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Methods of pregnancy termination in dogs
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-OHE
-Prostaglandins --combination therapy is preferred -Domapine agonists, antagonizes prolactin, dissolves CL -Dexamethasone: effective after day 30-35 -Estrogen (DO NOT USE! Severe side effects!) |
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Dystocia in Dogs
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-ALWAYS a medical emergency!
-Maternal: obstruction of passage, decreased uterine function, abnormality of pregnancy --torsion -Fetal: obstruction of passage, developmental anomaly, abnormal posture, presentation, position |
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Primary uterine inertia
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-Uterus cannot contract
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Secondary uterine inertia
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-Uterus has muscle fatigue
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Guidelines for intervention during whelping
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-Green discharge before birth of the first pup
-30 minutes of strong contractions with no pups delivered -2-3 hours of weak contractions with no pups -4 or more hours between puppies -Obvious problem |
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What to do with a Dog Dystocia
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-Get a complete history
-Complete physical exam -Digital vaginal exam -Abdominal palpation -Radiographs -Ultrasound -Doppler -Uterine monitoring devices |
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Dog fetal heart rate and distress
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-More than 180 bpm is normal
-160-180 bpm is mild to moderate fetal stress -Less than 160 bpm is severe stress, fetus needs immediate intervention --consider emergency C-section |
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Dystocia treatment in dogs
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-Manipulation
-Pharmacological agents --Ca, glucose, oxytocin -DO NOT use oxytocin without making sure there is no obstruction -Give Ca carefully IV, monitor the heart -Surgery: C-section! Time is of the essence! |
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Eclampsia in dogs
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-Puerperal tetany, hypocalcemia
-Occurs after whelping -Common in small breed dogs with large litters -Common at peak lactation, after parturition |
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Signs of Eclampsia in dogs
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-Muscle tremors
-Restlessness -Pacing and panting -Facial pruritis -Failure to care for neonates all of a sudden -Stiffness -Elevated pulse rate -Elevated body temperature -Convulsions |
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Eclampsia treatment
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-Emergency! Treat right away!
-Give Ca slowly -Remove pups for 12-24 hours --wean pups? Reduce milk draw |
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Eclampsia prevention
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-Well-balanced ration
--make sure Ca/P ratio is correct --add puppy food during pregnancy of same brand -Routine calcium during pregnancy is NOT recommended --body will get used to higher level of Ca and once nursing starts Ca will drop anyway -Can give Ca during lactation in dogs at risk of eclampsia |
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Post-partum metritis in dogs
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-Metritis is NOT pyometra!
-Due to ascending infection -Fetal infection can be source -Dystocia and retention of fetal membranes predispose |
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Clinical presentation of post-partum metritis in dogs
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-Fever, anorexia, depression
-Neglected pups -Foul smelling, purulent vulvar discharge -Leukocytosis, may see left shift -Vaginal cytology -Cranial vaginal culture or uterine culture and sensitivity --E. coli, staph, strep are most common -Abdominal radiographs -Abdominal ultrasound |
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Treatment for post-partum metritis in dogs
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-Evacuate uterine contents
--oxytocin within 2 days (receptors decrease quickly) --prostaglandins -Monitor with ultrasound -Antibiotics -Allow pups to nurse if mammary glands look unaffected |
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Mastitis in Dogs
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-Ascending or hematogenous infections are both possible
-Coliforms, staph, or strep -Most common during the first week of lactation -Infected mammary glands are enlarged, hot, red, painful -Fever, purulent discharge, change in milk color -Neglect of pups -Neutrophilia with or without left shift -Abscessation and gangrene can occur -Shock! -Prevention is key! |
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Mastitis treatment in Dogs
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-Stabilize the patient
-Broad spectrum antibiotics -Debride? -Warm soaks and hot packs -Clean with saline -NSAIDs, but use caution if puppies are still nursing -Pups do not need to be weaned unless there are abscesses -Prevention is key! |
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Sub-involution of Placental Sites (SIPS)
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-Rare
-Unknown etiology -Occurs in young dogs after whelping -Site where placenta was attached cannot regress back to normal -Excessive or prolonged sanguineous vulvar discharge post-partum --constant, chronic, bloody discharge -Non-purulent -Animal is normal in all other respects |
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SIPS diagnostics
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-Cytology and culture
-Abdominal ultrasound -Abdominal radiographs (not super helpful) -CBC -Rule out brucellosis -Definitive diagnosis requires histology |
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SIPS treatment
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-OHE in dogs not intended for breeding
-Supportive care for breeding animals -If PCV drops, just spay! -Antibiotics to prevent secondary infections -Most resolve on their own |
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Pregnancy Toxemia
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-Rare
-Ketosis without hyperglycemia -Hypoglycemia can be present -Usually caused by alteration of carbohydrate metabolism during pregnancy -Occurs in dogs with poor diet or in dogs with increased metabolic demand |
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Pregnancy toxemia treatment
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-Stabilization
-May be an emergency situation -Dietary improvement -In severe cases, pregnancy termination may be needed to save the dog --OHE |
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Other periparturient disorders in dogs
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-Gestational diabetes (very rare)
-Uterine torsion (rare) -Uterine rupture |
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Disorders of the ovaries and estrous cycle in dogs
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-Failure to cycle
-Prolonged or persistent estrus -Short interestrous interval -Miscellaneous causes for infertility |
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Causes of Failure to cycle in the dog
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-Delayed puberty
-Silent heat -Chromosomal abnormalities -Ovarian agenesis, other abnormalities --uterus unicornis -Sex reversal, male pseudohermaphrodites -Old age -Premature ovarian failure (oophoritis, autoimmune pathogenesis) -Luteal cysts (uncommon) -Split heat |
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Prolonged or persistent estrus in dogs
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-Can be caused by follicular cysts
-Neoplasia -Adrenal disease, adrenals can make sex hormones -Exposure to exogenous estrogens |
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Follicular Cysts in dogs
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-Can be present and not cause any issues, or can produce hormones and be an issue
-Can lead to irregular cycles or persistent estrus -Depends on what types of hormones cyst is producing --do serial vaginal cytology to see what it looks like |
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DDx for follicular cysts in dogs
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-Split heat cycle
-Ovarian disease/neoplasia -Adrenal disease -Exogenous estrogen |
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Split heat cycle in dogs
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-Dog goes into heat, ova and follicles form, and then stops
-No progesterone increase, no ovulation -Prepare for ovulation, but does not ovulate -Dog goes back into heat in 2 weeks or so |
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Treatment for follicular cysts in dogs
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-GnRH or HCG
-Can surgically remove -Can manually pop the cyst, but need to be careful --do not want to dislodge the ovary into the abdomen |
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Ovarian neoplasia in dogs
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-Granulosa cell tumor is most common, but are overall uncommon
-Germ cell tumors --teratoma (benign) --dysgerminoma (malignant) -Epithelial tumors (adenocarcinoma) |
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Diagnosis of exposure to exogenous estrogen in dogs
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-History is key!
-Dog will look like it is going into heat -Rule out other causes --normal cycle --ovarian remnant --follicular cyst --Ovarian neoplasia --evaluate the adrenals -Treat by removing the exposure -Bone marrow suppression can be irreversible!! |
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Ovarian Remnant Syndrome
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-Complication of OHE
--be sure to get ALL of the ovary out during the spay! -Diagnose with LH testing vs. GnRH challenge test -Evaluate the adrenals -Rule out exogenous estrogen exposure -Can treat medically or surgically --want to go find the piece of ovary that is causing the problem --if don’t find, re-ligate the stumps |
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Short interestrous interval in dogs
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-120-150 day interestrous interval is required for endometrial repair
-Shorter interval will result in reduced fertility --animal may not be able to retain a pregnancy -Need to rule out split heat |
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Causes of short interestrous interval in dogs
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-Breed predisposition |
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Hypoluteoidism
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-Not being able to maintain a CL, low progesterone levels |
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Hypoluteoidism Treatment
|
-Progesterone supplementation to maintain a pregnancy
--DO NOT give unless they are actually dropping in progesterone values --will masculinize female puppies if progesterone is too high -May cause parturition problems, plan for C-section -Terbutaline or tocolytics to prevent premature labor |
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Disorders of the vagina and vestibule in the dog
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-Vaginitis
-Vaginal hyperplasia or prolapse -Vaginal strictures -other congenital anomalies -Neoplasia |
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Vaginitis in the dog
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-Adult onset vs. puppy onset
-Puppy vaginitis occurs often -In adults is associated with foreign bodies or other infectious diseases |
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Causes for vaginal discharge in dogs
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-Normal cycling
-Post-partum lochia -Uterine disorder -Vaginal anomalies -Vestibular disroders -Urinary tract diseases -Skin fold pyoderma |
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Diagnostics for Vaginitis in dogs
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-Digital vaginal exam
-Urinalysis and urine culture (cystocentesis) -Vaginoscopy (good for stricture identification) -Vaginal cytology -Contrast radiography -Ultrasound |
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Treatment for Vaginitis in dogs
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-Correct underlying anomaly if there is one
-Consider estrus cycle if juvenile vaginitis |
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Vaginal Hyperplasia or prolapse
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-Occurs in young dogs
-Arises from vaginal floor, cranial to urethral papilla -Appears and progresses with estrus cycle -Stage I: perineal swelling only -Stage II: eversion of vaginal floor just cranial to the urethral papilla -Stage III: eversion of the entire vaginal circumference --looks like a doughnut |
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Vaginal Strictures
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-Usually remnants of fetal structures
--paramesonephric ducts -Can cause pain on intromission -May predispose animal to dystocia |
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Vaginal Neoplasia in Dogs
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-Leiomyoma is common
-TVT --only tumor that is directly transmitted from dog to dog --specific chromosome complement |
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Uterine Disorders
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-Uterine torsion (rare)
-Uterine prolapse (not common) -Uterine rupture -Post-partum metritis -SIPS -Cystic endometrial hyperplasia -Pyometra -Chronic subclinical endometritis -Neoplasia -Other disorders |
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Pyometra in dogs
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-uterus becomes filled with pus
-Need cystic endometrial hyperplasia first -Estrogen increases progesterone receptors -Progesterone allows endometrial gland proliferation and decreased myometrial activity -Uterine glands get bigger, prepare for pregnancy --if they continue to grow and become cystic, predisposes dog to pyometra -Almost always E. coli bacteria -Needs a progesterone environment -Emergency treatment! Dog is sick and vomiting |
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Presentation of Pyometra in dogs
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-Middle aged or older dogs
-PU/PD due to endotoxemia -Purulent vaginal discharge if the cervix is open -Abdominal discomfort -Fever, depression, lethargy, weakness, inappetence, vomiting |
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Diagnosis of Pyometra in dogs
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-Ultrasound is most useful
-CBC, Chem, Urinalysis -Abdominal radiographs |
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Pyometra treatment in dogs
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-Emergency stabilization
-Spay the dog is best solution -If dog is a breeding dog, can treat with prostaglandins, antibiotics, dopamine agonists -Uterine lavage -medical treatment is WAY more expensive than surgical treatment --dog needs to be hospitalized |
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Endometritis in dogs
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-Do not know cause
--uterus or hormonal influence? -Diagnose with uterine biopsy and culture -Treat with systemic antibiotics |
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Uterine Neoplasia
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-Leiomyoma is most common
-Other neoplasia can occur but are less common -Other tumors can metastasize from elsewhere to the uterus |
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Infectious causes of pregnancy loss in dogs
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-Herpes infections
-Brucella canis -Mycoplasma and other bacteria -Protozoa --neospora, toxoplasmosis -Adenovirus, distemper virus -Stress from systemic illness |
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Other causes of pregnancy loss in dogs
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-Hypoluteoidism
-Embryonic or fetal defects -Genetic defects, chromosomal defects -Maternal structural abnormalities -Severe malnutrition and severe environmental stress -Vaccines (modified live vaccines), drugs (steroids), toxins --no safe drug during pregnancy |
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Mammary disorders in dogs
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-Mastitis
-Agalactia -Mammary neoplasia |
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Agalactia
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-Not making milk
-Poorly documented in dogs -History of progesterone supplementation -Can be a genetic disease -Treatment: --oxytocin (letdown only) --acupuncture --dopamine agonists to increase prolactin (metoclopramide, domperidone) |
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Mammary Neoplasia in dogs
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-Most common neoplasm in the female dog
-Usually in older dogs -Hormone dependent -Most commonly seen in caudal mammary glands -50% benign, 50% malignant -OHE can be preventative |
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OHE and mammary neoplasia
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-Decreases chances for neoplasia in dogs
-0.5% chance of developing a tumor if spayed before 1st heat cycle -8% risk if OHE after 1st estrus -26% risk if OHE after 2nd estrus -Little benefit if OHE after 3rd estrus |
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Mammary neoplasia in dogs Diagnosis
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-Palpation
-50% will be solitary, 50% will be multiple nodules -Be careful with cytology -Histopathology for definitive diagnosis |
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Treatment for mammary neoplasia in dogs
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-Surgery is gold standard |
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Mammary neoplasia prognosis
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-Lymph node metastasis |
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Pig breeding farms
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-Size is Based on actual sow spaces
--Nursery and grower/finisher sites are based on actual pig numbers -Farms are enclosed to better control environment -Computerized reproduction records --LOTS of data, updated on a weekly basis |
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Pig reproductive anatomy
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-Uterus can be very long, up to 45 inches
-Bursa surrounds the ovary -Cervix has many concentric rings -Vagina and vestibule is also fairly long, 5-7 inches --Vestibule is highly innervated and cones into the cervix --cone shape of vestibule makes AI easy, no blind pouch or diverticulum |
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Pig ovarie
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-Oval, 4-5cm long
-Mature follicles are 7-8mm -One follicular wave per cycle -CL forms after follicle ruptures --CH or CA may be present -Can use ultrasound to identify ovaries and pregnancies --Transrectal or trans abdominal |
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Pig Puberty
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-Depends on genetics
-Occurs when animal weighs 240-300 lbs, usually closer to 300 -6-8 months old -Movement vs. confinement affects age of puberty -Time of year affects puberty |
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Maternal genetics in pigs
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-Animal is in a breeding program, will be used to make more pigs
-Tend to be white pigs -Earlier puberty |
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Terminal genetics in pigs
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-Animal is going to go to market
-Tend to be darker pigs |
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Boar Effect
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- Manipulation of puberty in pigs
-Boar has the biggest effect on shortening puberty -Put a boar in the pen with gilts and can make puberty happen 3-4 weeks earlier -Important for breeding programs even though most pigs are bred via A.I. |
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Methods for manipulating puberty in pigs
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-Boar effect
-Controlled stressors: stress can induce first heat and shorten puberty -Lighting does not have a huge effect, need some lights but they will not have a huge effect -Cross breeding to produce “hybrid vigor” --more robust pig |
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Porcine Estrous Cycle
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-Non-seasonal polyestrus animals
--cycle all year if not pregnant -21-day cycle -Cycle can range from 17-24 days -Gilts are in estrus for 36-48 hours -Sows are in estrus for 48-72 hours --wide range! -Ovulation occurs 75% of the way through estrus -Heat detection is via visualization |
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Heat detection in sows
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-Visualization of heat behavior
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Gilt
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-Pig that has not had a litter
-“virgin pigs” -Have 36-48 hour estrus period, fixed length |
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Hormonal manipulation in pigs
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-Restricted to label use only!
-Synthetic progesterone (Matrix): induces progesterone or delays onset of estrus -Prostaglandin F2a: used to induce parturition only -PG600: induces estrus in non-cycling animals -GnRH agonist (Ovugel): liquid product that is administered intra-vaginally --need to inseminate pig 22 hours after administration |
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Sow Reproduction
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-Lactational anestrus is common
--Makes management of pig reproduction easy --if piglets are nursing, sow is in anestrus -Weaning of piglets at 16-21 days initiates cyclicity 4-7 days later |
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Wean to Estrus Interval (WEI)
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-Period from weaning to onset of behavioral estrus
-Normally 4-8 days in length -Longer WEI gives shorter length of estrus -Early is less than 3 days post-weaning -Late is more than 9 days post-weaning |
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Signs of standing heat in Sows
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-Behavioral:
--mounting (animals coming into heat mount animals in estrus) --fence walking --vocalizing --tilted ears --kyphosis -Anatomical: --vulvar swelling --vulvar discharge -Changes are associated with estrogen produced by the follicle |
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Boar and estrus detection in pigs
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-Boar is essential for a good quality estrus detection program
-Do not want actual mating between the teaser boar and the sow -Want a stinky, loud boar --the more senses stimulated the better -Put boar right in front of the animals you want to detect heat -Can put boar in a cage on wheels, can control where he goes and how long he stays -If a sow is in heat she will “lock” with back pressure |
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Breeding Pigs
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-Pen mating
-Hand mating -AI --85-90% of piglets in USA are conceived via AI |
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Ideal time to inseminate a sow in heat
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-12-24 hours before ovulation
--ovulation occurs ¾ of the way through estrus --inseminate before the end of estrus! -Will see decreased fertility if bred more than 4 hours after ovulation -Do NOT breed or inseminate after ovulation |
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Boar Sperm
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-3 billion sperm in extended boar semen
-LOTS of sperm are not used -Can pool semen from many boars when inseminating to get mix of piglet genetics |
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Post-mating uterine inflammation in pigs
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-Due to sperm and insemination process
-Influx of leukocytes into the uterine lumen, leukocytes destroy the sperm -Sperm cells are taken into lymphatics or expelled in discharge -Uterine contractions cause evacuation of the uterus --takes 24 hours to get rid of everything and for inflammation to reduce -Do not re-inseminate within 24 hours after first service! --2nd AI sperm will get destroyed by leukocytes immediately |
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Utero-tubule junction in pigs
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-“Door to utopia”
-Can only fit 600,000 sperm in utero-tubule junction, only first 600,000 sperm make it to the egg |
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Insemination Technique in pigs
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-Insemination hygiene is important
-AI pipette placement -Deposition of semen -Hands-free AI technique |
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Cervical AI in pigs
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-Can be used for all females
-Sows and gilts |
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Post-cervical AI in pigs
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-Deposit semen directly into the uterus
-Only used for sows -Can decrease the amount of sperm needed |
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Piglet Gestation
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-114 days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days)
-Embryos enter the uterus 48-60 hours post-ovulation -Maternal recognition of pregnancy happens 11-12 days of gestation --embryo moves throughout the uterus and secretes estradiol -Embryo migrates and attaches at day 14-18 -Fetal skeletal mineralization by day 35 -Fetuses are immunocompetent by day 70-75 --important for disease diagnosis |
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Maternal recognition of pregnancy in pigs
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-Estradiol secreted by embryo leads to intraluminal PGF
-Occurs 11-12 days of gestation |
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Diagnosis of Pregnancy in Pigs
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-Behavior
-failure to return to heat in 18-25 days -Ultrasound --look for fluid/tissue interface --can diagnose pregnancy as early as 21-24 days |
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Breeding herd Vaccinations in Pigs
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-Minimum preventative disease program
-Parvovirus -Leptospirosis -Erysipelas -Others are herd specific -Pre-farrowing vaccines are given to sows 4-6 weeks before parturition --6 weeks pre-farrow and booster 3 weeks pre-farrow |
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Farrowing
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-Parturition in pigs
-Sow will be restless for 24 hours -Vulva is relaxed, swollen, red -Piglets pop out every 10-15 minutes --can be as many as 45 minutes apart --More than 2 hours is abnormal and intervention is suggested -Piglets present cranially 60% and caudally 40% --both presentations are normal |
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Induction of parturition in pigs
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-PFG2-alpha
-Synchronizes farrowing -Want sows to farrow under supervision, use lutalyse (PGF2-a) to synchronize parturition when there is supervision -Pig will farrow 30 hours after injection -Give within 72 hours of expected farrowing date |
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Pig Lactation
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-Lactational anestrus, while piglets are suckling the pig is not cycling
-Lactation lasts 16-21 days on average |
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Mycotoxins and pig gestation
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-Mycotoxins originate in the feed
-Mold develops on grain -Zearalenone: Fusarium roseum |
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Zearalenone
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-Fusarium roseum
-Phytoestrogen, has estrogenic activity -If developing fetuses are exposed to estrogens it can have big effects on fetuses -Causes implantation failure -Piglets will have an enlarged vulva and delayed maturity -Irregular estrus and irregular mammary development -Vaginal or rectal prolapse -Decreased semen quality in boars |
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Cystic follicles in pigs
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-Single retention cyst does not affect reproductive cycle
-Multiple large cysts or multiple small cysts has effect --results in anestrus or nymphomania -No treatment in sows! |
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Infectious causes of fetal malformation in pigs
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-Porcine parvovirus
-Porcine reproductive and Respiratory syndrome PRRS -Pseudorabies -Pathogenic bacteria (lepto, brucellosis) -Look at history of herd management, clinical signs, parity, stage of gestation, and new animals added -Do walk-through of facilities! -Submit fetal tissues and paired serum samples --important! Acute and convalescent titers should be 10-14 days apart and should be run at the same time to reduce error |
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Porcine Parvovirus
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-SMEDI
-Stillbirths, mummies, embryonic death, infertility -Primarily affects replacement animals (gilts) -Ubiquitous around the world -Stable virus in the environment -Diagnose based on history and serology -Prevent with vaccination and acclimatization -Easy to diagnose and easy to treat |
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Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome PRRS
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-Large percentage of abortions at all stages of gestation
-Sow mortality is 5-10% -Most herds are on a vaccination program -May also see increase in pre-weaning and nursery mortality -Increased number of days to market weight -Affects pigs of all ages |
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PRRS diagnosis prevention and treatment
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-Keep it out of the herd!
-Serology: Serum/positive ratio of more than 2.5 -Try not to introduce naïve replacements into PRRS positive herds --vaccinate or acclimate animals before entry |
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Pseudorabies
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-Herpesvirus
-Aujeszky’s disease -Causes reproductive failure and reduced fecundity in pigs -Regulatory disease -Eradicated from commercial herds in the U.S. --still in feral herds -Breeding herds are still tested --testing depends on state --intense monitoring program is in place |
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Leptospirosis in Pigs
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-Most common bacterial cause of reproductive wastage in swine
-L. interrogans with Pomona, canicola, icterhemorrhagiae, grippotyphosa, hardjo, Bratislava, tarassovi, and australis serovars -Inapparent infections in her -See more infections in replacement gilts -Transplacental infection during leptospiremia -Diagnose via lung hemorrhages and kidney/liver necrosis -Paired serum titers for full diagnosis |
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Leptospirosis prevention
|
-Vaccinate!
-Easy to control with vaccination -Put antibiotics in feed -Maintain proper sanitation |
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Brucellosis in Swine
|
-Brucella suis
-Eradicated from commercial herds but still present in feral pigs -Broad distribution, mostly from feral hog population -In adults can cause abortion, infertility, orchitis -IN piglets can cause posterior paralysis, lameness, weak or unthrifty animals -diagnose with paired serology -Anyone selling breeding swine must test regularly for Brucellosis and Pseudorabies |
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Boar Reproductive Anatomy
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-Prepuce and penis are adhered until 3-6 months of age
-Fibroelastic penis -Cork-screw penile tip -Testes descend at birth -Scrotum is tightly adhered to the body, not pendulous -Has ALL accessory sex glands --prostate, vesicular glands, bulbourethral glands -Prepuce has a diverticulum cavity |
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Boar Puberty
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-Depends on genetics
-Can be as early as 2 months -generally more like 4-6 months -Used in breeding program starting at 7-8 months -Considered mature at 12-16 months -Have semen collected on a weekly basis |
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Boar Breeding Management
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-Boars are generally housed in a separate building |
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External Genital Anatomy of Small Ruminants
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-2 labia on either side of vulva
-Clitoris (enlarged in intersex individuals) -Mammary glands: two glands with one teat on either side |
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Small Ruminant Vagina
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-Walls are collapsed into folds
-Cervical os is a small depression at the most cranial aspect |
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Small Ruminant Cervix
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-Tortuous, narrow lumen
-Fibrous annular rings --Ewe has 5-6 off-set rings --doe has 5-8 off-set rings -Rings make transcervical AI difficult |
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Small Ruminant uterus and ovaries
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-Bicornuate uterus suspended by broad ligament
-Uterus is coiled in the non-gravid state -Ovaries are ovoid shape -Follicles and CL project from the ovary surface -Ovarian bursa -Right ovary in the doe is more active than the left ovary |
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Sexual Maturity in Small Ruminants
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-Puberty depends on breed, nutritional status, season and male effect
-Need adequate nutrition to go into puberty -Animals born earlier in the year will have a later/slower maturity -Animals born later in the year will enter maturity at an earlier age -Ewes go through puberty at 6-9 months -Does go through puberty at 6-8 months -First ovulation in ewes is a silent estrus, no receptive sexual behavior -Breed when animals are 60-70% of predicted adult weight |
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Small Ruminant Cyclicity
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-Seasonally polyestrous
-Short-day breeders, come into heat and breed in the fall -More darkness causes increased melatonin release --increased melatonin results in increased cyclycity -Estrogens start to have positive feedback on hypothalamus -Increased GnRH pulses from the hypothalamus |
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Estrous cycle in Small Ruminants
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-FSH release from pituitary causes follicular waves
-Follicles grow and produce estradiol -Increased estradiol and low progesterone results in estrus behavior |
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Signs of Estrus in Ewes
|
-Vulvar swelling
-Anorexia -Thin mucus discharge -Standing to be mounted by the ram |
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Signs of Estrus in Does
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-Vulvar swelling
-Tail flagging -Restlessness -Interest in the buck, will pursue the buck -Increase in urination |
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Small Ruminant Ovulation
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-FSH surge right before ovulation
-LH surge right at ovulation -Ovary produces oxytocin -Endometrium produces PGF2-a, results in luteolysis |
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Ewe Estrous Cycle
|
-14-19 day cycle, average 17 days
-Estrus lasts 15-48 hours, average 30 hours -Ovulation occurs 21-45 hours after onset of estrus --12 hours before the end of estrus -Diestrus lasts 12-13 days, increased progesterone levels |
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Doe Estrous Cycle
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-18-22 day cycle
-Average 21 day cycle -Estrus lasts 24-71 hours, average 36 hours -Ovulation occurs 30 hours after the onset of estrus --near the end of estrus -Diestrus lasts 18 days, increased progesterone levels --longer interovulatory period than ewes |
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CL progesterone dependence in Small Ruminants
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-Ewes are dependent on the CL for progesterone until 50-60 days of gestation
-Does are dependent on the CL for progesterone for the entire pregnancy |
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Fertilization and implantation in Small Ruminants
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-Ova are fertilized in the oviductal ampulla
-Ova are transported into the uterus --2-4 days in ewes --3-4 days in does -Implantation occurs on day 15-20 -Ewe: embro is in ipsilateral horn to the CL by day 12 -Doe: embryo migrates to opposite horn or stays ipsilateral --allows for better spacing with multiple births? |
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Small Ruminant Recognition of Pregnancy
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-Embryo releases Interferon Tau
-If not pregnant, PFG2-a from endometrium causes luteolysis -If pregnant, PGE1 and PGE2 are released from the embry and the endometrium to prevent luteolysis |
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Placentation in Small Ruminants
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-Epitheliochorial: chorion is in direct contact with endometrium
-Indeciduate: little to no maternal tissue is lost at parturition -Cotyledonary: maternal caruncle and fetal cotyledon form placentome --Caruncles are concave -Placentation begins around day 16 and is complete by day 22 |
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Progesterone in Ewes
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-CL is present ad necessary for progesterone production until day 55-60
-After day 55-60 placenta takes over -Cannot abort a fetus with PFG2-a after 60 days in the ewe -Estradiol 17b levels rise at day 60, regulates pregnancy specific protein B --PSPB |
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Pregnancy Specific protein B
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-Present in Ewes
-Induced by estradiol 17b secretion -Regulates PGE and placenta |
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Gestation in small ruminants
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-145-155 daus
-Ewe is dependent on CL for first 55-60 days -Doe is dependent on CL for duration of pregnancy |
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Pregnancy Diagnosis in Small Ruminants
|
-Use teaser male with a marking harness and look for animals coming back into estrus
-Estrone sulfate hormone assay -Pregnancy specific protein B assay --Ewes: 22 days --does: 30 days or more -Progesterone: if less than 1ng/ml animal is not pregnant --Ewes: 18-19 days --does: 21 days --specific for LACK of pregnancy -Ultrasound is the best method --trans-rectal: 18-60 days --transabdominal: 30-120 days -Definitive diagnosis is identification of uterine fluid and placentomes or embryo/fetus on ultrasound |
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Pseudopregnancy in Small Ruminants
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-Caused by persistent CL
-Increased progesterone -Increased abdominal size -Udder development -Diagnose via ultrasound, will see fluid and no definitive signs of pregnancy --no placentomes or embryo/fetus -Treat with PGF2-a injection --be sure animal is not pregnant before giving injection!! |
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Manipulation of the Estrous Cycle in Small ruminants
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-Can induce estrus with light manipulation
-Melatonin administration can induce estrus -Exposure to a novel ram or buck |
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CIDR synchronization in Small Ruminants
|
-CIDR: insert into vagina on day 0
-remove after 9-14 days in ewes or 17-22 days in does -give PGF2a 24 hours before removal and eCG at time of removal -Introduce teaser animal 24 hours after removal -inseminate 52-55 hours after removal |
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PFG2a synchronization in small ruminants
|
-Lutalyse
-2 injections 11-12 days apart -60-70% of animals will return to heat with one injection -100% will return to heat with 2 injections |
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Parturition in Small Ruminants
|
-Fetal Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis is stimulated and results in ACTH production
-ACTH increases at end of gestation -Fetal adrenals secrete cortisol -Placenta starts to synthesize estrogen, causes up-regulation of oxytocin receptors on myometrium -PGF2a production lyses the CL and progesterone levels drop -With decrease in progesterone, myometrial contractions start |
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Parturition stages in Ewes
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-Stage I: 1-4 hours
--rupture of the membranes -Stage II: 30 minutes-2 hours --delivery of the lambs -Stage III: 6-8 hours --expulsion of the membranes --inspect membranes if possible! |
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Parturition stages in Does
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-Stage I: 2-12 hours
--rupture of the membranes -Stage II: 30 min-2 hours --delivery of the kids -Stage III: less than 12 hours --expulsion of the membranes --inspect membranes if possible! |
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Induction of Parturition in Ewes
|
-Dexamethasone 15-20mg IM
--give after 137 days, usually at 143 days --Lambing will occur 36-48 hours after injection -Estradiol Benzoate --most reliable but not commercially available, illegal in food animals! -PGF2a --can be used to terminate a pregnancy before 50 days --will not initiate parturition at term --may assist delivery if given at the due date |
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Induction of parturition in Does
|
-PFG2a can be used at any stage of parturition to terminate the pregnancy
--Kidding will occur 50-72 hours after the injection -PGF2a can be used to induce labor at term --give 144 days of gestation |
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Causes of Dystocia in Small Ruminants
|
-Malpresentation
-“Ringwomb,” failure of the cervix to dilate completely --needs surgery! -Simultaneous presentation -Uterine inertia -Fetal-maternal size disproportion -Congenital abnormalities --veratrum californicum -Correct dystocias with cleanliness and lubrication! |
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Vaginal Prolapse in Small Ruminants
|
-Multiparous ewes
-Last 3 weeks of gestation -Hereditary, do not breed ewe again -Physical contributors: --over conditioning or under conditioning --persistent cough --close tail docking |
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Treatment of Vaginal prolapse in Small Ruminants
|
-Epidural anesthesia
-Clean prolapsed tissue -Manually replace prolapsed tissue --hydroscopic agent, drying agent --steady pressure -Prolapse retainer can be used -Purse string and mattres sutures can also be placed --need to remove before parturition |
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Pregnancy Toxemia in Small Ruminants
|
-Occurs in last 6 weeks of gestation
-Most often when there are multiple lambs/kids -Causes: --inadequate nutrition (primary cause) --fat ewe --starvation --concurrent disease -Animal will have tremors, star-gazing, circling, depression, recumbency -Increased ketones in urine and blood |
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Pregnancy Toxemia prevention and treatment
|
-Prevent by separating ewes and does that have multiple fetuses
-Balance nutritional demands -Give oral or IV glucose, propylene glycol -Remove fetuses via abortion or C-section -Flunixin |
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Hypocalcemia in Small Ruminants
|
-Often occurs with pregnancy toxemia
-animal will be ataxic, hyperactive -Bloat -lack of PLR -Recumbency or paralysis |
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Hypercalcemia in Small ruminants prevention and treatment
|
-Give enough Ca in diet
--alfalfa --mineral mixture that is species specific -Treat with 1g Ca per 45kg IV -Should have dramatic response -Monitor HR closely, can kill animal if Ca is given too fast |
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Investigating Causes of Abortion in Small Ruminants
|
-Calendar dates of abortions
-Gestational age -Percent of herd affected -Closed herd or open herd? -Nutritional status -Vaccination and anthelmintic history -Historic abortion rate -Collect and submit samples --aborted fetus AND fetal membranes --Paired serum samples |
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Infectious causes of Abortion in Small Ruminants
|
-Campylobacter
-Chlamydophila abortus -Coxiella burnetti (Q fever) -Toxoplasma gondii -LOTS of others |
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Campylobacter in Small ruminants
|
-Causes abortions
-Zoonotic -Late gestation abortion, stillbirths, or weak lambs -Most significant cause of abortion in sheep in US -Oral infection via feces, aborted fetus or placenta -Edematous placenta with swelling or necrosis of cotyledons -Fetus will have liver necrosis, SQ edema, enlarged abdomen, pleuritis -Diagnose based on bacterial isolation from cotyledons, fetal liver, or abomasal contents -Treat with oxytetracycline -Vaccinate to prevent! |
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Chlamydophila abortus in Small Ruminants
|
-Zoonotic
-Late gestation abortion, 50-80 days post-infection -If infected before 105 days of gestation will have fetal resorption -Most common cause of infectious abortion in goats in the US -Oronasal transmission via aborted tissues or vaginal discharge -Diagnose based on paired serum sample of fetus or vaginal swab -Treat with tetracycline -Prevent by culling and vaccination |
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Q-Fever Coxiella Burnetti
|
-Cause of late gestation abortion in small ruminants
-Zoonotic -Transmitted via ticks -Shed in vaginal fluid, placenta, milk, urine, feces -infection via contact with aborted material, vaginal discharge, mucus membranes, veneral contact, inhalation -Diagnose based on lesions on placenta --no fetal lesions --need to find and submit the placenta! -Prevent by culling and vaccination |
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Toxoplasma gondii in Small Ruminants
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-Causes late gestation abortions
-Zoonotic -If acquired before breeding, no abortion -30-90 days, fetal resorption or mummification -More than 90 days: abortion -More than 120 days, stillbirth, weak offspring, or healthy offspring -Occurs in goats more than sheep -Diagnose based on fetal membranes, serology, organism isolation -Treat with Monensin, Decoquinate, Sulfonamides -Prevent contamination with cat feces |
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Non-infectious causes of pregnancy loss in Small Ruminants
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-Stress
-Trauma -Nutrition --vitamin or mineral deficiency, especially copper -Toxins -Anthelmintics -Angora goats have genetic predisposition |
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Small Ruminant Penis
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-Fibro-elastic penis
-Urethral process -Pendulous scrotum -Testes and accessory sex glands |
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Sexual Maturity in Rams
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-Puberty at 6-9 months
-Onset of puberty at 40-60% of mature weight -Earlier onset of puberty when exposed to cycling females -Testosterone production leads to sexual interest, spermatogenesis, and semen quality |
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Sexual Maturity in Bucks
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-Penis and prepuce in prepubertal bucks are attached to each other
--makes breeding impossible -Urethral process separates by 3.5 months -Glans penis is completely free by 4.5 months -Puberty occurs at 4-5 months --will start to see sperm in ejaculate |
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Seasonality of Small Ruminant males
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-Short-day breeders, melatonin increases as daylight decrases
-More melatonin decreases the negative feedback of testosterone -Hypothalamus is activated -GnRH is produced, increases LH production and testosterone production -Testicle size, semen quality, and mating behavior increases in the fall season |
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Mating behavior in bucks and rams
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-Flehmen response
-Striking or kicking -Pawing -Nuzzling -Grunting -Mounting leads to intromission and ejaculation -Higher libido leads to higher lambing percentage -One ram can inseminate 100 ewes in 17 days |
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Buck/Ram Breeding Soundness Exam
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-Physical exam: teeth, eyes, feet
-External genitalia: scrotal circumference --should be more than 30cm -Evaluation of semen --0.5-1.5ml --1.5-5 billion sperm present --more than 30% progressively motile --More than 70% morphologically normal -Serum ELISA test for Brucella Ovis |
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Reproductive Pathology in Rams
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-Ram Lamb epididymitis
-Caused by corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis Actinobacillus, Haemophilus, and histophilus -Oral/nasal transmission from ram to ram -Will see epididymal fibrosis ad enlargement --neotruphils in semen --fever, hind limb lameness -Diagnose by ruling out Brucella ovis with serology --Brucella ovis until proven otherwise -Treat with tetracycline, 3 days |
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Epididymitis pathology
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-Epididymal duct hyperplasia and obstruction causes backup of spermatozoa
-Sperm granulomas and pressure necrosis can occur -Will see epididymal swelling, neutrophils in semen, and a 15-30% decrease in lambing rate -Diagnose by serum ELISA for Brucella ovis |
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Sperm Granuloma
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-Blockage of efferent ducts draining into the epididymis
-Usually bilateral -May rupture and cause severe inflammation -Looks mineralized on ultrasound exam -Caprine intersex |
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Hypospadias
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-Opening of ventral urethra, failure of urethral fold closure
-Caprine intersex condition |
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Ulcerative Posthitis
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-Pizzle Rot |
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Urinary calculosis in Small Ruminants
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-Calculi lodge in urethral process |
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Functions of the Male Reproductive System
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-Procreation
-Production of androgens -Development of Secondary sex characteristics |
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Male Sex
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-Genetic sex: XY
-Gonadal sex: testes -Phenotypic sex: penis, scrotum, accessory glands, muscle mass, etc. |
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Testicular Descent
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-IN utero testes are intra-abdominal
--near caudal pole of the kidney -Vaginal process forms from peritoneal cavity -Gubernaculum extends from testis to scrotal region -Gubernaculum enlarges distally before descent starts, regresses after descent -Descent is androgen dependent --if animal is not producing enough androgens, may have errors in descent |
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Factors influencing testicular descent
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-Elongation of the testis
-Degeneration of the mesonephros -Growth of the metanephros -Gubernaculum degeneration -Androgens -INSL-3 |
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Testicular descent in different species
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-Bull, ram, and buck descends by mid-gestation
--should be born with 2 scrotal testicles --if not, do not use for breeding -Boar: 90 days of gestation --born with 2 scrotal testicles -Stallion: late gestation to early post-natal --within first month or 2 of life --one year is too long for breeding, but performance is often a major factor in breeding -Dogs and cats: post-natal up to 6 weeks --if not descended by 16 weeks, considered retained |
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Onset of Puberty
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-Resumption of mitosis of permatogonia
-Initiation of Meiosis -Animal is able to produce and deliver viable sperm --libido --erection --ejaculation -Increase in testicular size -Increase in testosterone -Terminal differentiation of sertoli cells --certain gene expression patterns are shut down -Secondary sex characteristic development |
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Average Age of Puberty
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-Stallion: 12-24 months
--yearling can get females pregnant -Bull: 6-18 months -Ram: 4-12 months -Boar: 4-8 months -Dog: breed dependent -Want to select for early puberty in animals, inheritable trait |
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Puberty in the Bull
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-More than 50 million sperm in ejaculate
-More than 10% progressively motile sperm -Still have lots of abnormal sperm, especially proximal cytoplasmic droplets -Age at puberty is highly heritable --choose sires that reach puberty early -Sperm production and onset of puberty is highly correlated with scrotal circumference --big balls leads to earlier puberty |
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Regulation of Male Fertility
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-Separation
-Contraception --castration, also decreases male behavior --Vasectomy, for companion animals only -Can have surgical or chemical vasectomy -Hormonal contraception and vaccines exist also -GnRH super-agonists will decrease regulation --“overdose” with testosterone -Separate colts and fillies before they are 1 year old! --6-7 months to be safe |
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Chemical Vasectomy
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-Stops spermatogenesis
-Chemically closes vas deferens and epididymis |
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Testicular Anatomy
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-Testicular parenchyma is divided into lobes
--lobes contain seminiferous tubules -Tubules drain into Rete testis/mediastinum testis -Tunica albuginea provides lobulations --covered by visceral vaginal tunic -Efferent tubules connect rete testis and epididymis -Epididymis is 1 highly convoluted tubule -Spermatic cord |
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Spermatogenesis
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-Occurs in Seminiferous tubules
1. Spermatocytogenesis: making a spermatocyte 1a. Mitotic proliferation of spermatogonia -Stem cells stay mitotically dividing forever 1b. First and second meiotic divisions --spermatogonia become primary sepermocytes, become secondary spermocytes, become round spermatids --includes meiotic division of DNA, crossing over --developing sperm become immunogenic, need to be on other side of blood-testis barrier 2. Spermiogenesis: differentiation and formation of sperm -No more nuclear division, just differentiation from spermatid to sperm |
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Blood Testis Barrier
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-Sertoli cell tight junctions
-Interstitial, basal, and adluminal cells -Limits immune recognition of haploid cells --makes testes an immune privileged site -Maintains unique environment in adluminal space that permits spermatogenesis -If blood gets to developing sperm, will cause an immune reaction --can cause infertility! |
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Duration of Spermatogenesis
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-Species specific
-Usually 34-60 days -Epididymal transit is 10-15 days -Time from Type A spermatogonia to ejaculated sperm is 50-60 days |
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Testicle
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-Sperm factory
-Sperm production is highly correlated to testis weight, size, circumference |
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Daily sperm production
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-Boar: 15 billion
-Bull: 12 billion -Ram: 7 billion -Stallion: 6 billion -Approximately 15-18 billion sperm per gram of testicular parenchyma -Have to “evacuate” testis to estimate daily sperm output |
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Cryptorchidism
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-Testicle is no descended by acceptable timeframe
-10% incidence in pigs, horses, goats, dogs -can be unilateral or bilateral -Abdominal or inguinal --can get stuck anywhere on the path of descent -No sperm production in retained testicle --sperm production is temperature dependent and retained testicle is too warm in the body -Hormone production is minimally affected --still have production of testosterone and male behavior -Retained testicle will be small and soft -Predisposed to neoplasia -Heritable? Do not breed cryptorchids! |
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Anterior Pituitary Gonadotropins in the male
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-LH: acts on leydig cells
--testosterone secretion from leydig cells in testes -FSH: acts on sertoli cells --prepubertal sertoli cell proliferation --initiation of spermatogenesis --High in castrated males |
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Testosterone
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-Produced in leydig cells
-Androgen binding protein maintains high levels in seminiferous tubules -Binds to androgen receptors -Feeds back onto FSH and LH, negative feedback -Allows for sexual differentiation and testicular descent -Important for spermatogenesis and epididymal function -Accessory sex gland development and function -External genitalia -Libido -Male behavior |
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Di-hydro testosterone
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-Made in sertoli cells from testosterone
-5-alpha reductase converts testosterone to DHT -More biologically active than testosterone -Acts on same receptors as testosterone -Effects are similar to testosterone --more effects on external genitalia -Causes male pattern baldness and growth of prostate in benign prostatic hypertrophy |
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5-alpha reductase inhibitors
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-Finasteride
-Prevents conversion of testosterone into di-hydrotestosterone -Decreases male pattern baldness |
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Estrogen in males
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-Produced in sertoli cells from testosterone
-May regulate LH, FSH, and prolactin -Inhibits spermatogenesis -part of regulatory axis |
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INhibin in males
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-Produced in sertoli cells
-Has negative effects on FSH -Levels are related to germ cell numbers -Counterbalanced by activin |
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Androgen Binding Protein
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-From sertoli cells
-Binds testosterone, DHT, and estrogen in seminiferous tubule and epididymal lumen |
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Exogenous testosterone
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-if given at super-phsyiologic levels will down-regulate FSH and LH
-Decreased testosterone in testicles, decreases sperm production -Exogenous testosterone increases other male characteristics but decreases spermatogenesis |
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Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Testicular Axis
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-GnRH from hypothalamus acts on pituitary, causes release of LH
-LH acts on testis to produce testosterone and androgens -Androgens inhibit the hypothalamus -In castrated males, FSH and LH levels will be increased --body is trying to stimulate non-existant testes to produce testosterone -Can use FSH and LH levels to determine if there is a retained testicle |
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How to determine if there is a retained testicle
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1. Measure FSH and LH levels (more academic than practical)
2. Measure testosterone --if testosterone is present and animal has been castrated, there is a retained testicle pumping out testosterone 3. GnRH stimulation test --will cause testosterone production if there is a testicle present 4. AMH test --cryptorchid testicles remain immature, will release AMH --mature testicles do no release AMH 5. Abdominal ultrasound |
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Cyclic (Surge) Center in a male
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-Non-functional
-During gestation testosterone/Estradiol enters brain and obliterates surge center --defeminizes the surge center -In females, estradiol secreted from fetal ovary is unable to cross BBB, no obliteration |
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Seasonality in Males
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-Controlled by light/dark ratio via melatonin in pineal gland
-In non-breeding season, decreased GnRH, LH, and FSH -Testicular size is decreased in non-breeding season -Sperm production and semen volume is decreased -Some species have complete endocrine or spermatogenic shut-down -Summer heat stress can affect reproductive function --technically not seasonal though |
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Epididymis
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-Site of sperm maturation, transport, and storage
-Secretion and absorption of fluid -Continued by Ductus deferens -Composed of caput, corpus, and cauda that are physiologically different -Has secretory and resorptive function -Sperm acquire ability to capacitate and have acrosomal reaction -Motility potential occurs in corpus and cauda -Sperm DO NOT SWIM through the epididymis, are pushed through -Sperm in the head of the epididymis are non-motile --gain motile ability as they pass through the body and tail |
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Epididymis length and time of sperm residence
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-Stallion: 75 meters, 10-14 days
-Bull: 40m, 11 days -Ram: 30m, 13 days -Boar: 17m, 9-14 days -Relevant for sperm defects and the amount of time it takes after an insult for normal sperm to be evacuated |
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Ductus Deferens
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-Vas Deferens
-Layers of smooth muscle -Connects the tail of the epididymis with the pelvic urethra -Medial to the testis and epididymis -Continues into the spermatic cord -Terminal end thickens into the ampullae near bladder -Terminal end contains glands, even if ampullae are absent |
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Sperm transport
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1. Seminiferous tubules
2. Rete testis 3. Efferent ducts 4. head of the epididymis 5. Body of the epididymis 6. Tail of the epididymis 7. Vas Deferens -Non-ejaculated sperm are cleared in urine or voided via masturbation |
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Sperm in tail of the epididymis
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-Can be harvested from dead animals for AI
-May not swim initially, but eventually should -Can cryopreserve and use for A.I. |
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Scrotum
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-Thin skin with sweat glands
-Tunica dartos forms scrotal septum -External spermatic fascia is loosely attached to the cremaster muscle --Facilitates sliding of the testis along the scrotal wall --Separated from the tunica vaginalis in closed castration -Cremaster muscle -Tunica vaginalis |
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Temperature Regulation of the Testes
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-IN domestic mammals, testicles must be 2-7 degrees below body temp to maintain spermatogenesis
-Too high temperature will cause sperm defects -Cremaster muscle adjusts distance from body -Dartos muscle -Pampiniform plexus -Sweat glands -Thin nature of scrotal skin keeps it cool -Hair on the scrotum keeps it warm |
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Time to produce normal sperm after an insult to the tetis
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-45 days in testes
-15 days in epididymis -60 days total before normal sperm are released -If insult is not too bad, may not wipe out all spermatogonia -May be less than 2 months, but 2 months max if regeneration is going to happen |
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Accessory Sex Glands in the Male
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-Ampullae
-Vesicular glands -Prostate -Bulbourethral glands -Sit in pelvic urethra -vary by species -Produce fluids and buffers that are added to sperm -Semen= sperm+ accessory gland fluids |
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Seminal Plasma
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-Contributed by accessory glands
-Variable in volume, composition, and origin among species -Adds volume to the sperm -Gives energy to the sperm -Initiates sperm motility -Has immuno-modulatory factors, increases immune response in uterus when ejaculated -Forms copulatory plug in rodents |
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Ampullae
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-Accessory sex glands
-Well-developed in stallions -Small in bull and dog -Absent from tom and boar -On pelvic urethra -Glandular thickenings of terminal ductus deferens --right before the ductus deferens enters the pelvic urethra -IN stallions can have blockage of the ampulla -Sperm can be stored in ampullae --with castration, need to wait 1-2 weeks before all sperm are gone from ampullae |
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Vesicular glands
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-Accessory sex glands
-Seminal vesicles -provides 50% of volume for bull ejaculate, very developed in bulls --lobulated in the bull -20% of boar ejaculate -Gel fraction in stallions -Absent in carnivores -Caudal to the ampullae -Dorsal to the beck of the bladder |
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Prostate
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-Present in all species
-Provides entire seminal fluid in dogs and cats -Sits midline on the pelvic floor -Caudal to seminal vesicles/vesicular glands -Has body and disseminate parts |
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Bulbourethral glands
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-Cowper’s glands
-Sit ventrally, just inside the anus on the pelvic floor -Large in the boar, contribute 20% of the ejaculate volume -Provides Pre-sperm fluid in the stallion |
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Inflammatory process in accessory sex glands
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-Common in bulls and dogs |
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Old World Camelids
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-Dromedary: one hump camel
--northern Africa and southwestern Asia -Bactrain: two-humped camel --Deserts of central and east asia --almost extinct! |
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New World Camelids
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-From South America
-Llama and alpaca: domesticated species of South American Camelids -Vicuna and guanaco: wild species of south American camelids --Llama is domesticated descendant of the wild guanaco --Alpaca is descendent of wild vicuna |
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Uses of Llamas
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-More personable than alpacas
-Used for predator management, keep predators away from livestock --depends on personality of the animal -Pet therapy for elderly and handicapped -Driving carts -Fiber -Packing -Showing -Breeding/livestock -Pets |
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Uses of Alpacas
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-Fiber
-Investment livestock (has plummeted recently) -Pets |
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Male Camelid terminology
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-Intact male alpaca = macho
-Castrated male alpaca = wether or gelding -Intact male llama = male or stud -Castrated male llama = gelding |
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Male camelid Testicles
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-Non-pendulous scrotum at level of the ischial arch
-Testicles should be in scrotum at birth -Reach maximum size at 3 years in llamas, 5 years in alpacas -Testicles are oriented caudo-dorsally -Epididymis is tightly connected to the testes --head, tail, and body are all palpable -Serum production starts at 10-12 months, established by 18-24 months -Prone to heat injury and trauma |
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Male Camelid Accessory sex glands
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-Ampullae
-Prostate -Bulbourethral glands -NO seminal vesicles -Produce Ovulation induction Factor, has GnRH capabilities and causes release of LH in females -Accessory sex glands are VERY important! -Examine with rectal palpation and ultrasonography |
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Camelid Prepuce
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-Small, triangular shaped opening
-Oriented posteriorly when relaxed --Urine stream goes between back legs -Re-orientation of opening of the prepuce when excited --allows penis to be extruded |
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Camelid Penis
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-Fibroelastic penis with sigmoid flexure
-Glans penis ends in hook-shaped cartilaginous process --helps penis move through the cervix --ejaculate inside the uterus -Opening of the urethra is NOT at the tip of the glans penis -Penis may be adhered to prepuce for 3 years --cannot be used for breeding until connection between penis and prepuce is lost |
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Mating behavior in Camelids
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-Male camelids chase sexually receptive female until they cush/force down by mounting
-Females are bred in sternal recumbency -Cartilaginous tip of the male penis penetrates cervix, deposits semen deep into uterine horns -Copulation lasts 20-25 minutes, can be 5-65 minutes -During copulation male “Orgles” -Ejaculation continuous throughout copulation --dribble ejaculation |
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Breeding Soundness Exam in Camelids
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-History
-General physical exam and BCS -Evaluation of the external genitalia --scrotum, testes, epididymides -Evaluation of the internal genitalia --bulbourethral gland, prostate, and ampullae -Semen evaluation |
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Testicular dimensions on Camelids
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-Testicular hypoplasia is a common problem
-Llama should be 5x3cm -Alpaca should be 4.5x2.5cm -Sperm production is correlated with testicular size --bigger is better |
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Semen collection in Camelids
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-Can use electroejaculation if animal is heavily sedated or under general anesthesia
-Artificial vagina mounted on dummy female --need training -Post-mating vaginal aspiration (most common) -Intravaginal condom or sponge (not always successful |
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Semen evaluation in Camelids
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-Should be grey to milky white
--will be pinkish-red tinged if gathered from vagina, lots of trauma to female cervix and uterus -Highly variable in volume -Concentration is highly variable -Motility is difficult to assess due to high viscosity of semen from mucopolysaccharide -Morphology: minimum of 50% morphologically normal -Motility and morphology should be assessed at a minimum |
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Common reproductive disorders in the Male camelid
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-Inability to complete mating
--poor libido, failure to gain an erection or ejaculation -Inability to achieve fertilization due to seminal abnormalities |
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Inability to complete mating
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-Poor libido
-Erection failure -Preputial swelling or preputial stenosis -Paraphymosis -Balantitis (inflammation of the land penis) -Posthitis (inflammation of the prepuce) -Urolithiasis |
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Fertilization failure causes
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-Azoospermia (no sperm)
-Oligospermia (low sperm numbers) -Asthenospermia (no motile sperm) -Teratospermia (lots of abnormal sperm) -Can be due to incomplete ejaculation, blocked ducts, immune mediated diseases, heat stress, cryptorchidism, testicular hypoplasia, testicular cysts, ectopic testes, hydrocele, orchitis, hematoma of testicles, testicular degeneration and neoplasia |
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Female camelid terminology
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-Female alpaca = hembra
-Female llama = dam |
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Female camelid reproductive Anatomy
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-Ovaries are globular, irregularly shaped
-Small! Can be hard to find -Oviducts are narrow, convoluted --ends at uterus on a small papilla --papilla has sphincter that acts as a valve, prevents fluid from uterus entering oviduct |
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Camelid Uterus
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-Bicornuate
-Left uterine horn is longer than the right -Uterine body is 2-3.5cm long -Internal part of both uterine horns forms uterine septum, cannot see junction externally --makes uterine body look longer than it is |
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Camelid Cervix
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-2-4 irregular annular or spiral folds
-2-5cm long -External os protrudes into the vagina -Looks like a donut on vaginal exam |
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Camelid vagina
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-15-25cm ling, very long!!
--need a speculum to get to cervix -Vestibule is 6-8.5cm -Cervix cannot be digitally palpated -Vulvar lips should be vertical and 2.5cm long -Clitoris is at ventral commissure of vulvar lips |
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Camelid age at first breeding
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-Females can be bred when they are 2/3 of mature weight
--alpaca: 100-150 mature weight --Llama: 250-400 mature weight -Usually 15-18 months |
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Follicular patterns in hembras
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-Induced ovulators
--no true estrous cycle -“Follicular wave pattern” -Waves of follicles overlap so always receptive to the male -Receptive to the male almost every single day -Continuous follicular phase interrupted by ovulation |
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Ovulation in Hembras
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-Occurs once female is bred
-Seminal plasma has ovulation inducing factor (GnRH), stimulates LH release and ovulation -Ovulation occurs 30 hours after mating -Ovulation will not occur if the follicle is small (less than 7mm) or if follicle is in regression phase of the follicular wave -Ovulation will occur if a female has a dominiant follicle (more than 7mm) AND --copulation has lasted more than 5 minutes --exogenous hormones are given --exposure to other stimuli like female-female mounting, handling, trans-rectal ultrasound -If ovulation occurs without conception, ova hangs out for 12 days waiting for conception --CL lasts for 12 days |
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Lack of Ovulation in Camelids
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-Ovulation does not occur if the follicle is small (less than 7mm) or if follicle is in regression phase of the follicular wave
--not ovulated, not released -Follicles in regression phase will luteinize and secrete progesterone for 5 days --after 5 days, progesterone levels fall and female will be receptive to male again |
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Reasons Camelid does not get pregnant
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1. Follicle is too small, less than 7mm
-female is still receptive 2. Follicle is greater than 7mm, ovulation occurs -CL lasts for 12 days if not pregnant, will be receptive in 12 days -If pregnant CL stays 3. Follicle larger than 7mm in regression phase -Follicle is luteinized, secretes progesterone for 5 days -Female is receptive 5 days later |
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How are cats and camelids different
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-In cats, longer matings and more matings result in more LH secretion and more ovulations
-In camelids, short matings have same ovulatory rate as longer matings --no LH release if a 2nd mating occurs within 24 hours for the 1st mating -24 hour refractory period due to depletion of LH from pituitary or down-regulation of GnRH receptors in pituitary? -DO not breed camelids for multiple days in a row! --not beneficial --traumatic to uterus and reproductive tract --introduction of bacteria |
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Camelid Breeding season
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-Non-seasonal breeders
-In South America is regulated by food availability -in North America, can happen year-round --but avoid hottest months of the summer and coldest months of the winter |
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Breeding Behavior of Camelids
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-Submissive behavior indicates receptive behavior
-Females will lay down in sternal position when approached by a male or following mounting by a male --“Cush” -Receptive females seek out males or lay near mating couple --may even mount a couple during mating -Non-receptive females will run away from male and spit/scream if cornered |
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Breeding management of Camelids
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-Maidens can be bred when 2/3 of mature weight
-Parous females can be bred within 20 days of normal delivery -Breed once they are receptive -Present female to male 7 days after breeding --if female spits off male, ovulation has occurred --female should be presented to the male weekly -If female is receptive, breed again -If female spits-off male for 3 weeks in a row, ultrasound for pregnancy (21 days post-breeding) --present to fertile male 3 times before examination for infertility -90% of females conceive in 1st 3 matings |
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Pregnancy in Camelids
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-CL is required throughout pregnancy
-Prostaglandin can terminate the pregnancy -Females ovulate in equal frequency from both ovaries --98% of pregnancies develop in LEFT uterine horn -Twin pregnancies are rare, most twins are naturally reduced early in gestation -Parturition can be induced with prostaglandin, 2 doses 12 hours apart --avoid inducing parturition, never sure if fetus is ready! -Check pregnant females regularly --can have lots of fetal losses up to 90 days of gestation |
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Diagnosis of Pregnancy in Camelids
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-Sexual behavior, non-receptive to males
--under influence of progesterone -Rectal palpation after 35 days --owners usually do not like rectal palpation -Progesterone concentration (should be high with pregnancy) -Ballotment -Ultrasonography --rectal after 12 days, more reliable by 3 weeks --transabdominal after 60 days |
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Elevated levels of progesterone without pregnancy
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-Persistent CL
-Pyometra |
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Parturition in Camelids
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-Gestation length is 330 days in alpacas and 345 days in Llamas
--variable -Do not wax, udder may not develop right until parturition -Most births occur in morning or early afternoon -Stage I labor: 2-6 hours, can be up to 24 hours --isolation, uneasiness, frequent urination -Stage II labor: 30-90 minutes --starts with rupture of chorioallantois, ends with delivery of the fetus --very quick --most females deliver while standing -Stage III labor: 2-4 hours --passage of fetal membranes --treat for retained placenta after 24 hours |
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Birth of the Cria
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-Volume of placental fluids is small
-Fetus is covered with epidermal membrane |
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Epidermal Membrane
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-Thin, semi-transparent membrane
-Attaches to muco-cutaneous junctions, coronary bands, umbilicus -Helps fetus pass through the birth canal since there is minimal lubrication from fetal fluids? |
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Camelid Placenta
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-Diffuse
-Microcotyledonary -Epitheliochorial -Non-deciduate -Amnion is closely adhered to allantochorion |
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Uterine torsion in Camelids
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-High incidence
-Occurs 8-10 months of gestation and at parturition -Clinical signs are variable, animal will be uncomfortable or colicky -Dx via rectal palpation and location of the broad ligaments --taught bands across the cervix --tricky diagnosis! -Can do vaginal exam if the cervix is involved -Tx: rolling sedated female or surgical correction --roll in the direction of the torsion --mom has to “catch up” with the fetus -Complications can include abortion, uterine rupture or hemorrhage, endotoxemia -Recurrence is possible |
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Dystocia
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-Occur in 5% of deliveries
-Main cause is abnormal neck and/or limb position of fetus -Pelvic inlet is narrower in camelids --shoulder lock is more prevalent than a hip lock --rotate fetus to avoid locking -Cervix and vagina are more prone to laceration and inflammation/adhesions -have increased risk of hypoxia and death of neonate -Recognize the problem early and act quickly! |
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Post-partum management of Camelids
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-Lochia may persist for 1 week
--should be whitish, pink vaginal discharge -Uterine involution is complete by 15-20 days post-partum -Females are receptive to males as early as 4 days post-partum -Pregnancy rates are better if females are bred more than 20 days post-partum |
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Breeding Soundness Evaluation of the Hembra
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-History
-General physical exam and body condition -Evaluate perineum and vulva -Trans-rectal palpation and ultrasonography of the reproductive tract -Vaginal speculum exam -Uterine culture, cytology, biopsy -Hysteroscopy -Females may need sedation for vaginal procedures --Xylazine and butorphanol --will need a speculum, vagina is very long! -Perform vaginal procedures when female is receptive and cervix is relaxed and open --if not receptive, may need to give estradiol |
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Rectal Ultrasonography for Camelids
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-Llamas can be rectal palpated
-Alpacs can be palpated with small hands, but not well-accepted by owners -Use probe extensions to scan entire reproductive tract -Ovaries are hard to find! CL looks different from other species CL -Only see cervical rings when pregnant |
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Camelid endometrial cytology
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-Use double-guarded swab
-Evaluate air-dried smears with diff-quick -Presence of 3-5 PMN per high-powered field indicates endometritis |
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Camelid endometrial culture
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-Use double-guarded swab
-Submit swab for aerobic and anaerobic culture, ureaplasma, mycoplasma, and fungi -Can be difficult to interpret microbiological results --wide range of organisms that can be isolated -Actinomyces pyogenes, bacillus, staph, E. coli, Strep, and Bacteriodes are common |
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Camelid Endometrial Biopsy
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-Llamas: use equine endometrial biopsy forceps
-Alpacas: use bovine endometrial biopsy forceps and be careful not to rupture uterus -Take biopsy from uterine horn -Assess biopsy for inflammatory infiltrates and periglandular fibrosis, and lymphocytes |
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Vaginal cervical abnormalities in Camelids
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-Congenital abnormalities due to small breeding pool
-Double cervix -Persistent hymen, may cause mucometra -Lacerations after dystocia or obstetrical manipulation -Adhesions that can cause pyometra -Cervivitis |
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Uterine Abnormalities in Camelids
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-Congenital:
--uterus unicornis --segmental aplasia --uterine hypoplasia -Endometritis or Metritis --recent abortion, dystocia, retained fetal membranes -uterine or vaginal prolapse -Infection and positive culture and cytology |
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Endometritis treatment in Camelids
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-Dx based on positive endometrial culture and cytology
--neutrophilic inflammation on biopsy -Place indwelling 2-way foley catheter, suture to vulva -Uterine lavage to remove debris before treatment --saline followed by oxytocin -Uterine infusions: antibiotic diluted in sterile saline --administer intra-uterine daily for several days -Sexual rest before trying to breed again |
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Ovarian abnormalities in Camelids
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-Ovarian Hypoplasia: small ovaries with no follicular activity |
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Breeding Soundness Exam (BSE) Objectives
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-Reproductive examination of the male
-Classify the male according to breeding potential --Satisfactory --Questionable --Clssification deferred --Unsatisfactory prospective breeder |
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Clinical BSE
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-Multivariate
-Not a measure of fertility -Not a guarantee -Only valid for the day of the exam -Indicator of potential fertility |
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Reasons to do a BSE
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-Pre-purchase
-Pre-breeding season -Fertility issue |
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Components of a BSE
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-Identification
-History -General physical exam -Reproductive physical exam -Behavioral evaluation -Semen collection and evaluation -Conclusion/assessment |
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Patient ID for breeding soundness exam
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-Very important!
-Need name/herd ID number -Breed -Color markings -Tattoo or freeze brand -Photo -Implanted chip -Important to document EVERYTHING |
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History for BSE
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-Prior breeding experience
-Number of females bred -Number of females pregnant per breeding cycle -Seasonal pregnancy rate -Foaling/calving rate, number of live births -Get info for most recent year and past years -Previous BSE results |
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General history that is helpful for BSE
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-Illness
-Racing/training history --racing causes stress, increased body temp, and can result in drug use --affects semen quality -Prior sales and number of previous owners -Reasons for sale -Fertility of male herd-mates |
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Physical exam for BSE
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-Is animal healthy enough to deliver quality sperm?
-Eyes: needs to be able to see -Legs and conformation: needs to be able to chase and mount females -Mouth: needs to be able to eat and stay healthy, maintain body condition -Cardiopulmonary and respiratory health -Body condition (obesity, malnutrition) -For food animals, can do abbreviated physical exam |
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Reproductive exam for BSE
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-Check scrotum and scrotal contents
--palpates testicles and epididymis --testicular measurements --palpate spermatic cord -Penis -Reproductive behavior -Internal genital exam -Microbial cultures -Semen evaluation |
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Testis, Epididymis, and spermatic cord on BSE
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-Visual examination of the scrotum
-Palpate for size, symmetry, and consistency -Testes should be freely movable in the scrotum, move up and down -Check orientation of the testes -IN rams, look for epiditymitis (indicates brucella ovis or Actinobacillus sminis infection) |
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DDx for Asymmetrical testicles
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-Inguinal hernia
-Orchitis -Epididymitis -Torsion -Hematoma -Abscess -Neoplasia -Usually is not relative to the testicle, is relative to the stuff around the testicle |
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Testis size and volume
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-Size can vary with season in stallion, ram, and buck
-Volume of testis parenchyma is correlated to daily sperm production |
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Testis size in bull and ram/buck
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-Scrotal circumference is the thing to measure, most important measurement
-Breed and age specific cutoff sizes -Needs to be more than 32cm for bull and ram |
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Scrotal Circumference
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-Highly correlated to many factors
-Testis weight -Daily sperm output -Sperm morphology -Pregnancy rate -Age of puberty in related heifers and bulls |
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Testis size in the horse
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-Cannot measure circumference due to position and orientation
-Need to measure width, length, and height --Can calculate volume --volume is highly correlated to sperm production -Scrotal width should be more than 8cm |
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Estimating daily sperm output in the Stallion
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-For each testis:
--4/3 pi *(height/2)*(width/2)*(length/2) --0.52 (Height*width*length)=a -Predicted daily sperm output = (0.024*a)-0.76 -Association between testicular volume and sperm numbers -Compare theoretical ejaculation to actual sperm number |
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Testicular size in dogs
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-Look for symmetry and consistency
-Measure with calipers -Ultrasound is best measurement |
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Testicular size and sperm production
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-Small testicles are bad
-Decreasing testicular size is bad -95% of testis weight arises from germ cells --loss of size typically is loss of germ cells |
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Reproductive Behavior and BSE
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-Fertility requires physical ability and interest to mate
-Semen collection at BSE is not necessarily representative of real-life semen --not the same as the live thing -Behavior cannot be observed when semen is collected by electroejaculation --not evaluating behavior or libido -Need to observe natural breeding |
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Libido testing and BSE
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-Important component
-Can use teaser mares or teaser heifers |
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Examination of the Penis for BSE
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-Look for lesions, tumors, deviations, infectious disease, etc.
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Semen collection
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-Artifical vagina can be used in stallion, buck, bull, and ram
--not used very much in the bull, too dangerous -Electroejaculation in bull, ram --can be used with anesthesia in boar, camelid, horse -Manual ejaculation in dogs and pigs -Pharmacological ejaculation --tricyclic antidepressants --xylazine --detomidine |
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Artificial vagina
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-Most common method used for stallion semen collection
-permits semen collection and also assessment of libido and ability to breed -Reflects natural ejaculate --should get complete and full ejaculate -Temperature of AV is important --45-50 degrees C, hot but not too hot -Need pressure, non-spermicidal lubrication, and proper technique -Colorado AV: water in a big sturdy tube -Missouri AV: water belly surrounded by leather |
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Bull AV
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-Thin PVC with rubber lining
-Water is warmer than it is for stallions |
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Internal AV
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-AV is put right into female
-Used for camelids a lot |
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Semen collection in the Dog
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-Manual collection
-Need to squeeze proximal to the bulbus glandis |
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Electroejaculation
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-Non-specific stimulation to the nerves of the penis
--stimulates a lot of other nerves also -Can be done in ram, buck, and bull only -Safest way to get semen from a bull -Often performed in conjunction with rectal massage --in bulls, massage the accessory sex glands first -Not a true ejaculate --not representative of volume, concentration, or total numbers -Can occasionally fail to collect semen -Erection may not occur -Electrodes are only on the ventral aspect of the probe |
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Semen and Seminal plasma
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-Dog: volume less than 35ml, duration 10-30 min
-Ram: volume 1-2ml, very concentrated, 5-10 seconds -Bull: 2-4ml, 5-20 seconds -Stallion: 50-150ml, 30-60 seconds -Boar: 200-300ml, 5-15 minutes |
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Semen handling that is detrimental to the sperm
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-Water: hypotonic
-Light -Temperature fluctuations -Chemicals (soap, betadine, alcohol) -Rapid centrifugation |
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Semen filtration
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-Horse and boar semen has to be filtered
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Semen evaluation
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-Gross evaluation
-Look at motility first! Decreases minute by minute -Volume and concentration -pH -Sperm morphology -Color -Odor -Blood, urine -Bacteria -Viability, percentage of live sperm -Other cells (RBCs, PMNs, round cells) |
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Issues with sperm
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-Urospermia: urine in the semen
-Hemospermia: blood in the semen -Pyospermia: pus or WBCs in semen |
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Sperm motility
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-Look at gross motility and individual motility in bull and ram
-Only look at individual motility in stallion, dog, and boar -Need phase contrast or DIC optics -Look at sperm raw and extended -Longevity of motility -Motility in the stallion needs to be greater than 60% to be satisfactory |
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Computer assisted semen analysis
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-Tracks individual sperm motility
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Sperm volume and concentration
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-Volume*concentration = total sperm numbers
-Concentration is only important if collected with AV --not important if collected via electroejaculation, not a full sample -Scrotal circumference is a very good predictor of sperm numbers --reduces need to actually calculate sperm numbers |
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Semen pH
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-Not evaluated in all species
-use pH meter or pH stick -Test pH after test for motility --metabolic waste from sperm will artificially alter pH --soap and urine will increase pH -pH is important in the dog --choice of antibiotic for treatment of prostatitis |
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Sperm Morphology
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-Does not change with time
-Use wet mount and phase contrast -Dry mount with eosin-nigrosin stain -Assess head, midpiece, and tail of sperm -Count 100-200 sperm minimum to fully assess morphology |
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Abnormal sperm Morphology
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-Proximal cytoplasmic droplet: droplet right at base of the head, almost in neck area
-Distal cytoplasmic droplet: droplet is on midpiece somewhere -Midpiece defects: irregular or rough midpiece -Head and acrosome abnormalities --crater defect/nuclear vacuoles --abnormal acrosome --Knobbed acrosome -Tail abnormalities: --coiled tail --double midpiece --hairpin tail --Fractured midpiece |
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Sperm morphology parameters
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-Abnormalities should be recorded by type
--abnormal head, bent midpiece, etc. -Morphology is evaluated based on percentage of normal sperm -Dog: more than 80% normal -Boar: more than 75%normal -Bull, ram, buck: more than 70% normal -Stallion: more than 60% normal |
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Issues with Semen
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-Azoospermia: absence of sperm in the semen
-Oligospermia: abnormally low sperm numbers -Teratospermia: high proportion of morphologically abnormal sperm -Asthenospermia: poor sperm motility |
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Factors affecting semen quality
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-Seasonal effects on semen volume, concentration, motility
-Seasonal effects on libido -frequency of ejaculation -Teasing and preparation -Presence of other males |
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Seasonality and semen quality
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-Stallion: volume, gel volume, and sperm concentration are affected by season
--Motility and morphology are not affected by season -Ram: motility and morphology are negatively affected with season |
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Final Assessment Classification of Semen Quality
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-Stallion:
--satisfactory, questionable, unsatisfactory -Bull: Satisfactory, decision deferred, unsatisfactory --defer decision for 2 months |
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Satisfactory potential breeding Bull
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-Normal PE |
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Satisfactory potential Breeder Stallion
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-Minimum of 1 billion morphologically normal, progressively motile sperm in 1st AND 2nd ejaculate |
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Ewe reproduction stats
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-Puberty at 6-9 months
-Seasonally polyestrus --short-day breeders, lamb in the early spring --1st heat is silent -Estrus cycle is 14-19 days, usually about 16 days --estrus lasts 15-48 hours (average 30) -Ovulate 21-45 hours after the onset of estrus -Gestation: 145-150 days |
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Ram reproduction stats
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-Puberty at 6-9 months
--40-60% of mature weight --occurs earlier with cycling ewes -Fibroelastic penis with urethral process -Vertical testis in pendulous scrotum |
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Doe reproduction stats
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-Puberty at 6-8 months
-Seasonally polyestrus --short-day breeder, lamb in early spring -Estrus cycle is 18-22 days, average 21 days --estrus lasts 24-72 hours, average 3 hours -Ovulate 30 hours after onset of estrus -Gestation is 145-150 days |
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Buck reproduction stats
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-Puberty at 4-5 months
-Fibroelastic penis with urethral process --attachment between penis and prepuce that separates by 4.5 months and allows breeding -Vertical testis, pendulous scrotum |
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Fertility
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-Ability to conceive and become pregnant through normal sexual activity
-Based on nutrition, breed, and timing of breeding |
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Fecundity
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-Potential reproductive capacity of an animal
-Major measure of fitness -Based on genetics, environment, and out of season breeding |
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Reproductive performance targets for small ruminant females
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-1st breeding at 7-12 months
--more than 60-70% of adult weight --if born late in the year, will not be heavy enough on 1st cycle and need to wait -Pregnancy rate: 98% -Abortion rate: less than 2% -Pre-weaning mortality: less than 5% -Weaning rate: 1.5-1.7 -Ewe/doe cull rate: 20% |
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Maximizing reproductive potential in small ruminants
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-Biosecurity
-General health -Nutrition -Vaccination -Parasite control |
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Biosecurity and reproductive potential
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-History (medical, vaccination)
-Replacement dams and sires need to be healthy --replacement vs. buying in --raising replacements can be expensive, can be more cost-effective to buy in but need to be aware of disease --buying in can increase genetic diversity -Physical exam -Quarantine new animals 30 days before introducing to herd |
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General health physical exam for breeding
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-teeth
-eyes -udder or scrotum -feet -Body condition score -Stage of production |
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BCS-1 in small ruminants
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-Prominent dorsal spinous processes
-Little fat over longisimus dorsi -Transverse process is easy to palpate -No fat cover on distal tips |
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BCS-2 in small ruminants
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-Prominent dorsal spinous process, but smooth and rounded
-Thin palpable fat covering longisimus dorsi -Transverse processes are palpable but rounded -Fingers can be pressed under transverse processes with some effort |
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BCS-3 in small ruminants
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-Rounded, smooth, barely palpable dorsal spinous processes
-Moderate fat cover overt longisimus dorsi -Longisimus dorsi is full and firm to pressure -Transverse processes are barely palpable, can get fingers under with significant pressure |
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BCS-4 in small ruminants
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-Dorsal spinous processew are detected as slight indentation in back fat
-Tick fat covering longisimus dorsi -Full, firm longisimus dorsi muscle -Non-palpable transverse processes |
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BCS-5 in small ruminants
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-Significant indentation over dorsal spinous processes |
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Target BCS in small ruminants by stage of production
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-Dry/Non-lactating: 1.5-2.0
-Breeding: 2.5-3 -Early gestation: 2-2.5 -Late gestation: 2.5-3 -Early lactation: 3-3.5 -Late lactation: 2-2.5 |
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Nutritional requirements and “flushing” small ruminants
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-Flushing: feed concentrates 4 weeks before breeding season (in fall)
-Increase nutrient intake and BCS before breeding season -Increases ovulation rate, which leads to increased lambing and kidding rate -Response depends on” --age (more mature gives greater response) --breed (prolific breeds are less responsive --Present BCS --Stage of breeding season, best early and late in season |
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Nutrition requirements in small ruminants during breeding
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-Early gestation (1-9 weeks)
--slightly higher nutrient requirement due to placental development -Late gestation (10 weeks +), need to increase nutrition --singleton needs 50% increase --twins need 70% increase |
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Diseases of late gestation in small ruminants
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-Pregnancy toxemia (ketosis)
-Ruminal acidosis -Hypocalcemia (milk fever) -Prevent with good management practices |
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Maximizing reproductive potential in small ruminants pre-parturition
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-Shear wool, trim feet
-Vaccinate to boost passive transfer --campylobacter --Clostridium, C,D and T -Deworm -Coccidiostat administration to decrease infestation in offspring --Lasalocid: approved for use in sheep only, preventative |
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Advancing onst or breeding season in small ruminants
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-Can advance first ovulation by a few weeks
--will not be able to advance by months, just weeks -Male effect: females will ovulate 3-4 days after exposure -Mealtonin: give after long period of daylight (after april) |
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Estrus Synchrnization in small ruminants by shortening luteal period
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-Shorten luteal period with PGF2a
-1st injection causes estrus in 30-60 hours --60-70% of females -2nd injection 9-11 days apart, estrus will happen in 30-60 hours --90-95% of females -observe and breed all females in heat in 4 days -Breed all females in heat in 3 days after 2nd PGF2a injection |
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Estrus synchronization in small ruminants by lengthening luteal period
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-Give exogenous progestins
-CIDR (leave in 9-14 days, remove and animal goes into heat) -MGA in feed -Norgestomet implant -Giving PGF2a 2 hours before removal tightens synchrony of the herd |
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Estrus synchronization with a single dose of PGF2a
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-After ovulation, there are still some cells that are leutenizing for 5 days post-ovulation
--PGF2a will not affect cells that have not fully leutenizing yet -Only 65% show behavioral signs of estrus 30-60 hours after PGF2a injection --due to cells that have not leuteinized yet -On days 0-4 after ovulation, breed any ewes that show estrus -On day 4 give PGF2a to ewes not showing estrus -Day 4-7 breed any new ewes in estrus -With 2 dose method, 95% of ewes will have susceptible CL and will demonstrate estrus |
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Estrus synchronization protocols in non-breeding season
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-Continue progestin administration protocol, follow with gonadotropin (PG600) 48 hours later
-Can manipulate photoperiod --60 days of extended light followed by 60 days of natural light --will get estrus 6-8 weeks after starting natural lighting --can do in combination with melatonin administration |
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Accelerated kidding programs
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-Goal is for doe to kid 3 times in 2 years
--kid every 8 months or so -Involves Breeding in transitional or non-breeding season -STAR program: 5 lambings in 3 years -Cornell design: 3 lambings in 2 years -Disadvantages: --early weaning --hormone treatments necessary -Advantages: --even distribution of kidding throughout the year --steady supply of market kids or milk |
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STAR system for accelerated lambing
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-Designed to give 3 lambs in 5 years
-Put ewes in 3 groups -73 day intervals -Not used for seasonal breeds -Does not involve hormones or light control |
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Cornell accelerated lambing program
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-3 lambs in 2 years
-Fixed mating or lambing times -8 month lambing interval -40% increase in lamb production |
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Ram breeding considerations
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-Ram is very important for flock genetics
--contributes 60-80% -Identify satisfactory potential breeders with BSE -Libido assessment gives serving capacity |
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Ram BSE
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-Physical exam
-Palpation of external genitalia --scrotal circumference -Semen evaluation -Serum ELISA for Brucella Ovis |
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Scrotal circumference and Ram BSE
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-Scrotal circumference at 170 days of age is predictive of post-pubertal size and sperm output
-8-18 months: 28-36cm is satisfactory, more than 36cm is exceptional -14 months: 32-40cm is satisfactory, more than 40 is exceptional -Circumference can decrease 0.5-1.5cm in the non-breeding season |
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Ram semen evaluation during BSE
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-Volume
-Concentration -WBC presence -More than 30% progressively motile, more than 70% is exceptional -50-70% morphologically normal is satisfactory, 80-90% normal is exceptional -Do serum ELISA to check for Brucella ovis! |
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Ram management
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-Ram lambs can service 30-35 ewes
-Adult rams can service 35-50 ewes -Fewer than 3 rams per pen decreases territorial fighting -Breeding harness can be used to check for breedings --change color every 17 days --1 color for each ram --keeps track of who got marker and when, can keep tabs on individual ram activity |
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Buck BSE
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-Physical exam
-Make sure buck is free of known genetic defects, not polled -Palpation of external genitalia and scrotal circumference evaluation --dairy bucks: 25-28cm if 45kg, 34-36cm if bigger buck --Meat bucks: no age or breed standards -Semen evaluation -Satisfactory breeder will breed 30 does in a 32 day breeding period |
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Semen evaluation for Bucks
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-Volume: 0.5-1.5ml
-Concentration -70% progressively motile is satisfactory -80% morphologically normal is satisfactory |
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Testicular abnormalities causing infertility in small ruminants
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-Variocoele
-Epididymitis (brucella in adults, variety of bacteria in young) -Orchitis -Sperm granulomas -Testicular hypoplasia and degeneration -Cryptorchidism -Intersex |
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Penile abnormalities causing infertility in small ruminants
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-Hypospadias
-Ulcerative posthitis --pizzle rot --corynebacterium renale --due to ammonia scalding the end of the penis -Phimosis -Paraphimosis -Urethral calculi |
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Ulcerative posthitis
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-Pizzle rot
-Due to Corynebacterium renale -Ammonia scalds the end of the penis |
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Teaser male small ruminant
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-Animal with high libido and previous breeding experience
-Used to stimulate cyclicity, synchronization, or for estrus detection -preparation: --vasectomy --epididymectomy --penile translocation --castrated male or cull females |
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Preparation of Teaser males
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-Vasectomy: ligation and resection of ductus deferens
-Epididymectomy: amputate tails of epididymitis -Penile translocation: left flank reposition, prevents intromission --animal is not infertile unless vasectomy or epididymectomy also happens --more common in bulls, prevent spread of venereal diseases -Need 60 days sexual rest post-op |
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Semen collection and storage in small ruminants
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-Artificial vagina: less stressful and physiologically normal sample
-Electroejaculation: increased volume, but decreased concentration -Cool ram semen to 4C and use within 24 hours -Cool buck semen over 1-2 hours to 5C and use within 6-8 hours -Semen is VERY susceptible to changes in temperature -Frozen semen needs to be 3x10^9 concentrated and more than 70% motile |
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Natural breeding system
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-Used in meat and fiber systems
-Parturition date dictates breeding date --fall breeding results in spring kidding/lambing, sets up next breeding cycle -Need to separate males until breeding -Male factors include scrotal circumference, age, number of males and number of females -Geography plays a role, size of mating area -1 buck per 30 does --buck can breed 50-200 does per season -3-5.5 rams per 100 ewes -Use a marking harness -Rotate males every 2 years, allow for genetic diversity |
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Assisted reproductive techniques used in small ruminants
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-Artificial insemination
--intravaginal --intracervical --transcervical --laparoscopic -Embryo transfer |
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Artifical insemination in small ruminants Pros
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-Can maximize use of the sire
-Reduces venereal disease transmission -Improves herd management -Can improve genetics |
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Artifical Insemination in Small ruminants cons
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-Costly!
-Labor -No standardization of packing or quality control of semen -No side proofs for production traits, no reliable data -Can spread less desirable traits -Need to manage AI well, there is lots of room for lawsuits |
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Factors determining success of AI in small ruminants
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-Mostly based on route of AI, intrauterine has most success
-Fresh vs frozen semen -Number and timing of inseminations -Insemination method -Semen quality and quantity -Semen handling -Management of females |
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Timing of AI in small ruminants
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-Estrus detection is key!
-Optimal timing is when there are changes in cervical mucus --Doe gets cloudy and stringy --occurs 12-15 hours after the onset of estrus --if animal is still in heat 12 hours later, give 2nd AI dose -Can do timed AI with progesterone removal --AI 50-55 hours after removal --Laparoscopic AI with fresh semen 52-60 hours --laparoscopic AI with frozen semen 55-60 hours |
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Ewe signs of estrus
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-Vulvar swelling
-Off-feed/anorexia -Thin mucus discharge -Standing for ram |
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Doe signs of estrus
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-Vulvar swelling
-Tail flagging -Restlessness -interest in buck -Mucus discharge |
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Intravaginal AI in small ruminants
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-Pipette is inserted into cranial vagina
--need to be sure to avoid the urethral orifice, point pipette dorsally -Breeding dose: --ewes: 3x10^9 progressively motile sperm --does: 4x10^9 progressively motile sperm -Conception rate is 15-30% (very inefficient!) |
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Intracervical AI in small ruminants
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-Elevate hindquarters
-Use vaginal speculum to see cervix -Pass pipette as far into cervix as possible -Deposit semen in the caudal cervix -Breeding dose: 1-2x10^9 progressively motile sperm -Conception rate is 35-50% --better than intravaginal, but not great |
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Transcervical intrauterine AI in Ewes
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-Put animal in dorsal recumbency with hindlimbs pulled forward
-use vaginal speculum -Retract cervix and pass pipette -Breeding dose 50-100x10^6 progressively motile sperm -Lambing rate is 40-70% |
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Transcervical intrauterine AI in does
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-Cervix is “locked” into lumen of the speculum
-Pipette is advanced, gently rotate with forward movement -Breeding dose 150-200x10^6 progressively motile sperm -Conception rate is 50-85% |
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Laparoscopic intrauterine AI in small ruminants
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-Put animal upside down in dorsal recumbency
-Make portals between cranial border or udder and cranial aspect of the flank -Semen is injected into anterior uterine horn -Ewe breeding dose: 50x10^6 progressively motile sperm per horn -Doe breeding dose: 20x10^6 progressively motile per horn -Conception rate 20-90% -Success depends on semen, ewe, and operator -Gives best results of all AI methods |
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Embryo transfer in Small Ruminants
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-superovulation before insemination
--give FSH or eCG 2 days before progestin removal --FSH gives better ovulation and fertilization rates -Flush uterus 5-7 days post breeding and insemination --laparoscopic or ventral midline incision -8-12 embryos recovered per flush, 5-6 are able to be transferred -Embryos are transferred or frozen and stored --pregnancy rate is 60-80% with laparoscopic transfer -Stage of development is important during collection, most often collect blastocysts |
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Embryo Transfer procedure in small ruminants
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-Surgical procedure, need anesthesia |
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Assisted Reproductive Techniques used in large animals
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-Artificial insemination (AI)
-Embryo transfer (ET) -In-vitro fertilization (IVF) -Gamete or zygote intrafallopian transfer (GIFT/ZIFT) -In-vitro oocyte maturation -Intravytoplasmic sperm injection -Gender selection -Embryo multiplication -Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer -Transgenesis -Stem cells |
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Artificial Insemination (AI)
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-Use fresh, cooled, or frozen/thawed semen
-Semen is at -196 C -Deposit into uterus of recipient -First done in 1780 in dogs -1953 = first calf born using frozen semen -Currently routinely used in most species, not used in cats |
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Advantages of Artificial Insemination (AI)
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-Allows for widespread use of specific males
-Prevents over-use of popular males -Increases selective pressure on paternal genetics -Can use genetic material across distances, can transport semen easily -Disease control -Reduced injuries during natural cover breedings |
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Disadvantages of AI
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-May narrow the genetic variation in a population if only a few sires are used
-Could propagate a genetic defect -Need more intensive management of females -Techniques used to preserve semen also preserve pathogens -Not accepted by jockey club for thoroughbred horses |
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Low dose AI in horses
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-Blind or endoscope guided
-Inseminate at utero-tubal junction, decrease distance sperm has to go to get to egg -Need 5x10^6 sperm --results in 35% pregnancy rate --can use much less sperm than natural cover -Gives opportunity for sexed sperm and frozen-thawed sperm -Need to know which side mare will ovulate from so semen can be put into the correct side |
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Embryo Transfer
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-Developed in 1970s and 1980s
-Take embryos from valuable donor and transfer to recipient’s oviducts or uterus for completion of gestation -Can be done in cattle, horses, sheep, swine, goats -Can store cooled or frozen embryos |
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Steps in Embryo Transfer
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1. Donor is bred via AI or natural breeding
2. Fertilization of egg occurs in oviduct 3. When conceptus goes into the uterus, it is flushed out before implantation --donor carries conceputs for 7-8 days 4. Look for conceputus in flush using microscope |
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Embryo Transfer in Small Ruminants
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-Surgical procedure, more involved than in other species
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Superovulation
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-Give hormones to make animal have more than one egg produced in a cycle
-Cattle and small ruminants: PMSG --causes 10-20 ovulations --FSH-like effects -Mares: equine FSH (Bioniche) -12.5mg BID starting on day 5 or 6 of cycle -Prostaglandin day 6 or 7 -Increases embryo recovery rates from 0.5/cycle to 2/cycle |
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Embryo cryopreservation
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-Routine in cattle and small ruminants
-Poor success in horses due to formation of embryonic capsule -Can be done if recipient dams are not ready for embryo transfer/implantation/pregnancy |
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Vitrification
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-Flash-freezing embryo
-Reduces crystal formation -Causes embryo to go into glass-like state -Flash freezing of very small volumes of water -Flush embryo earlier, in morula stage --need to do on day 6 -Do not need recipient to be ready -Allows for easier transport of embryo -Allows storage of genetics -Results in lower pregnancy rates -Increases the number of offspring from a given female in a given year |
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Advantages of Embryo Transfer
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-Increases the number of offspring, increased selection of maternal genetics
-Helpful for competition animals -Allows export of livestock -Disease control |
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Disadvantages of Embryo Transfer
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-Superovulation is not very effective in horses
-Need intensive management of donor and recipients -Expensive! --$1000 per breeding and flush cycle --$3,000 - $4,000 per foal! -more effective in cows than in horses -Uterus needs to be healthy enough to maintain pregnancy for 5-10 days |
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Problems with female reproductive tract
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-Oviduct: blockage, infection
-Uterus: endometritis, atrophy, periglandular fibrosis, adhesions -Cervix: tears, adhesions |
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In-vitro fertilization (IVF)
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-Used in cattle
-Fertilization and early embryonic development occur in a dish in the lab -Immature oocytes, just need an antral follicle -IN-vitro maturation, capacitation, and fertilization -Culture of an early embryo -Trans-cervical transfer of embryo -Can do in humans, sheep, goats, pigs, and sometimes horses |
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Advantages of IVF
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-Increased number of offspring from valuable females
-Offspring from otherwise infertile, valuable females -Offspring from oligozoospermic males |
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Disadvantages of IVF
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-Requires extensive knowledge of in-vitro maturation, sperm capacitation, and culture
-Can cause oversized calves, which causes dystocia -Possible, but not commercially viable in species other than cattle and humans -Expensive and labor intensive |
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Problems with IVF in horses
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-In-vitro sperm capacitation is an issue
-Embryo culture -Oocyte maturation |
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Reasons for IVF or Oocyte Transfer
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-Ovulation failure
-Oviduct pathology -Uterine pathology -Cervical pathology -Will not correct for poor genetic quality of the oocyte itself |
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Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
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-Sperm and egg are both transferred into a recipient
-Used for sub-fertile stallions -Management of post-breeding endometritis? -Fresh semen results in 82% pregnancy rate per cycle -Cooled semen results in 25% pregnancy rate per cycle -Frozen semen results in 8% pregnancy rate per cycle |
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Post-mortem recovery of Oocytes
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-harvest immediately
-Rinse with warm saline -Submerge in warm embryo transfer flush medium, lactated ringers, or saline -Ship overnight at constant ambient temperature -Semen should arrive 12 hours after ovaries -Collect DNA for parentage verification! |
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Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)
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-IN-vitro insemination, manual insemination |
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Gender pre-selection |
-Early embryonic loss |
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Seasonally Polyestrus mares
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-Breed when day length is long (spring)
--normal cycle starts 1st week of April -Do not cycle when day length is short (winter) -Repeated cycles |
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Horse birthday
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-January 1st for all horses
-Big deal for horses that compete at a young age -Want to breed horses as early in the season as possible, want foal to be born as close to January 1st as possible --breed horses January 15th to drop February 15th |
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Physiology of mare estrus
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-Light stimulates the eye, passes to suprachiasmatic nucleus, goes to superficial cervical ganglion, to pineal gland
-Norepi secretion decreases, melatonin secretion decreases -Decreased melatonin stimulates kiss neurons --increases GnRH release --Causes cycling |
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Artificial control of photoperiod in mares
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-Put mare under lights
-Extend day length to 16 hours, need at least 16 hours of light -Add light before dusk, at the end of the day -Incandescent or fluorescent lights -10 foot candle, 107 lux (measure with photometer to be sure you have enough light) -Attempt to get her to cycle earlier than April --want to breed February 15th -Takes 8-10 weeks to have effect -Initiate supplemental lighting program on December 1st to start breeding season on February 15th -Can put lights in stall -Should be able to comfortably read a newspaper in the barn until 11pm |
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Constant method of artificial control of photoperiod in mares
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-Turn on lights at 4:00pm
-Turn off lights at 11:30pm -Initiate 10 weeks before first desired breeding date |
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Stepwise method of artificial control of Photoperiod in mares
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-Add 3 hours of light during the first week
-Add ½ hour each additional week -Cheaper method compared to constant method, but requires more attention |
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Equilume
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-Facemask with blue light in 1 eye
-Put mask on mare -Method of artificial control of photoperiod |
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Melatonin and mares
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-Melatonin is increased at dusk, secreted during darkness
-Increases 10 hours after dusk -Anti-gonadal effect on horses, increased melatonin decreases GnRH and prevents cyclicity |
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Stallions and artificial control of photoperiod
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-Stallions may benefit from increased lighting
-Testicular weight increases during breeding season -Daily sperm output increases during breeding season -Reproductive performance may peak too early under artificial photoperiod, need to be careful |
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Autumnal transition in mares
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-Follicles develop, but fail to ovulate
-Last cycle of the breeding season -Follicle does not luteinize -Prolonged CL -Ovulatory surge of LH is absent, CL sticks around -Causes irregular heat behavior -Long periods of receptivity due to increased number of follicles present |
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Winter anestrus in mares
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-Ovaries are small and inactive
--no follicles, no CL, no ovulation -November to January in PA -Decreased levels of GnRH, LH, FSH, and P4 (progesterone) -Uterus is flaccid, endometrial glands are inactive --no tone or shape to uterus -Cervix is closed but not tight, or thin and dilated --no progesterone to act on cervix |
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Mare behavior during anovulatory season
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-Lack of strongly motivated sexual behavior
-Can be variable, mare may react positively, indifferently, or negatively to stallion -If no stallions are present, no signs of sexual receptivity -If stallion is present, may show signs of receptivity due to lack of progesterone --“no progesterone to say no” -May reject stallion, but will not reject him strongly |
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Vernal transition period in mares
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-Lasts 30-60 days
-Increasing levels of GnRH, FSH, and LH stays the same --not enough LH to cause follicle to rupture, ovulation does not happen -3.7 follicular waves on average -Long periods of estrus and receptivity, irregular periods of non-receptivity -Follicles are greater than 30mm --ovary is covered with many large follicles -Cervix is not closed tightly, somewhat relaxed -End of transition occurs when there is an LH surge, resulting in ovulation --ovulation marks start of the breeding season -Want to know when mare is through the vernal transition --do not want to waste semen or time with stallion --avoid uterine infections |
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End of vernal transition
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-Want to know when this happens
-Ultrasound, progesterone assay, or palpation can indicate --indicates ovulation has occurred -Once ovulation occurs, regular 21-22 day inter-ovulatory interval is maintained |
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Mare follicle on ultrasound
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-Follicular fluid is anechoic
-Mare ovaries are large -Any Follicle more than 35mm is a good size -Earlier in the season the mare will ovulate larger follicles -On average ovulatory follicles are 30-50mm in diameter |
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Mare uterine horn on ultrasound
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-Cross section will show endometrial folds
-If mare is in estrus, will see edema in uterine folds --cervix will also be relaxed |
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Mare corpus hemorrhagicum
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-Lasts 18-24 hours
-May be painful |
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Maiden mare
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-never been bred
-Usually thought of as very fertile if young -Older maiden mares can be challenging |
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Barren mare
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-Bred but does not have a foal or pregnancy
-Class I: normal mare, usually due to inadequate dose of semen -Class II: treatable, but abnormal --uterine infection or other minor problem that needs to be treated before mare can get pregnant -Class III: full on infertility |
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Foaling mare
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-Foaled during the current season
-wet or lactating mare -Fertile group of mares! --may have some issues related to foaling (uterine infections, cervical lacerations, retained fetal membranes) |
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Intensive management of breeding mares
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-Palpate and ultrasound daily during estrus
-Administer ovulatory agents when 30-35mm follicle is detected -Breed when there is a soft follicle that is more than 30-35mm, before ovulation -Confirm ovulation via ultrasound -Monitor uterine fluid |
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SucroMate Equine
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-Deslorelin acetate
-Specifically developed to induce ovulation in mares -Injectable sustained release suspension -Administer when there is a 30-40mm follicle present -1.8mg in 1ml dose, give IM -Induces ovulation within 48 hours -FDA approved product, very commonly used! |
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Low management of breeding mares
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-Tease daily
-breed every other day until mare is not receptive to stallion |
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Estrus detection programs in mares
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-Need a good routine
-Teaser stallion gives higher success rate -Need competent staff -Good records are essential! |
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Ideal Teaser stallion qualities
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-big testicles
-Good libido -Vocal -Well-mannered, easy to handle and avoid injuries -Enthusiastic -Gentle |
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Best estrus detection systems in mares
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-Effective
-Comfortable for animal handlers -Comfortable for horses -Used regularly |
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Estrus
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-Behavioral signs of sexual receptivity
-Interest in stallion -Tail raise -Neutral position of ears -Abduction of hind limbs -“winking” vulvar lips -Urinating -Squatting -Urination -Allows copulation |
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Diestrus
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-Behavior signs of sexual rejection
-Moves away from the stallion -Ears pinned -Tail clamped -Strikes, kicks, bites -Does not permit copulation |
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Mare breeding records
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-Simple
-Durable -Accessible -Accurate -Current |
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Manipulation of estrus cycle in mares
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-Progestogens
-Prostaglandins -gonadotropins |
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Progestogens for manipulation of mare cycle
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-Regumate (synthetic, oral progestogen)
-Progesterone in oil -Long-acting progesterone, slow release |
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Regumate
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-Synthetic oral progestogen
-Used to regulate mare reproductive cycle -Prevents display of estrus, estrus occurs 4-5 days after withdrawal -Does not control timing of ovulation, will get variable timing -Keeps mares out of heat |
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Prostaglandins for mares
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-Lutalyse: natural dinoprost
-Estrumate: cloprostenol -Use if there is a CL present, lyses CL and restarts cycle --allows for follicular growth -CL has to be mature to respond, 6-14 days -Ovulation is variable, occurs in 2-10 days --time to ovulation depends on follicular wave -Always palpate and ultrasound mare when using prostaglandin administration! |
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Lutalyse in mares
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-Lyses CL, allows follicular growth
-Causes transient side effects --sweating, cramping, colic, weakness |
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Progesterone-Estradiol program in Mares
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-Day 1-10: 150mg progesterone IM, 10mg estradiol 17-beta IM
-Day 10: 10mg lutalyse IM -Day 16: estrus -Day 19-20: breed and give HCG IV --sucramate is better than HCG, if available -Day 20-22: ovulation --takes 11 days for ovulation after CL has been lysed |
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Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
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-HCG
-LH like properties -Speeds up ovulation of a mature follicle -Give 2500-3000 IU IV -Need pre-ovulatory follicle to be more than 35mm -Mare will ovulate in 36-48 hours -Should use Sucromate instead, is FDA approved |
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Stallion “book”
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-How many mares a stallion breeds in a season
-120= typical AI book -40= typical natural cover book |
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Semen evaluation
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-Initial motility
-Longevity of motility -Volume -Concentration -Morphology -total number of sperm |
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Total sperm number
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-Can use spectrometer, looks at cloudiness |
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Sperm morphology
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-Use phase contrast microscope
--buffer formal saline fixed samples, do not need stain -Can use bright light microscope --need Eosin nigrosin stain -Count percent normal and abnormal |
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Total number of morphologically normal, progressively motile sperm
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= total sperm * % morphologically normal sperm * % progressively motile sperm
-Insemination dose is 250 million to 500 million normal motile sperm -Helps calculate how many mares could be bred with the ejaculate |
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Semen Extender
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-“picnic basket” for sperm
-Has glucose, protein -Dilutes waste products -Increases volume, helps control temperature changes |
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Glucose skim milk semen extender
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-“Kenney extender”
-2.4 g instant non-fat dry milk -4.9g glucose -100ml sterile distilled water -Antibiotic --not detrimental to sperm, prevents overgrowth of bacteria but does not prevent bacterial growth altogether |
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Antibiotics for Semen extenders
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-Piperacillin (1mg/ml)
-Ticarcillin (1mg/ml -Ticarcillin/clavulanic acid (1mg/ml) -Reagent grade gentamicin (1g/ml) -Potassium penicillin (150,000 units) -Dihydrostreptomycin (150,000ug) -Amikacin sulfate (100-1000 mcg/ml) |
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AI in mares
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-Wash perineum and vulva really well with soap, pat dry
-Use non-spermicidal lubricant (water-based) -Pipette tip goes into uterine body -Inject 250-500 million morphologically normal progressively motile sperm |
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Natural cover protection
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-Protect mare!
-Use heat rope and tail wrap -Put padded boots on mare’s hind feet to protect stallion from getting kicked -Nose twitch may be needed |
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Natural cover
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-Stallion flags tail during ejaculation
-Has refractory period after ejaculation, needs to be aroused again for next insemination attempt |
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Transported semen
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-Cool at 4C
-Semen is viable for at least 48 hours, possibly 4-5 days -Big part of horse breeding industry -Allows mare to stay on farm, do not have to transport to breeding farm |
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Horse breed registry requirements
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-Blood typing
-Approval prior to transport -Special forms -Identification passport -Identification codes -Licensed veterinarian |
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Advantages of AI in mares
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-Helpful for horses far apart
-Do not need to transport mare and foal -Horses can stay in training -Decreased cost of transport -Can breed multiple mares on one stallion ejaculate --semen goes further |
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Disadvantages of AI in mares
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-Increased vet expenses
-Increased stallion management -increased mare management -Increased insemination costs -Cost of semen collection and transport --still cheaper than shipping an entire horse! -Variation in individual stallion fertility |
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Needs for transported semen
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-Stallion BSE
-Mare BSE -Excellent communication between veterinarians and owners |
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Stallion Semen collection and handling
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-Routine AV collection
-Filter -Extend to 25-50 million sperm per ml -Package in equitainer -Do not store in freezer that is opened often! Need constant temperature -Optimal cooling rate is 0.3C per minute --Maintain at 4-6C -Do not warm semen before putting it into the mare, mare’s body heat will warm -Maintain a control sample for motility observation --evaluate at 24 and 48 hours |
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Info needed on semen samples
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-Date and time of collection |
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Mare Breeding contracts
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-Involves fees and payment schedules
-May include “live foal guarantee” -Registry record -Legal document! |
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Live Foal Guarantee
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-Payment of stud fee is only required if the foal stands and nurses
-No payment for abortions, dead foals, defective foals |
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Booking fees
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-Non-refundable fee
-Reserves a breeding for the season, regardless of outcome -Usually $100-300 |
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Pregnancy Diagnosis in Mares
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-The earlier the mare can be checked the better!
-Palpation per rectum --will feel increased uterine tone, decreased endometrial folds, and closed, tight cervix -Ultrasound per rectum accurately ages and assesses developing fetus -Transabdominal ultrasound: 100-110 days due to size of fetus -Estrone sulfate assay -Equine chorionic gonadotropin |
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Equine conceptus sizes
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-16 days: chicken egg
-35-40 days: small grapefruit -50-60 days: big grapefruit |
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Equine conceputs heartbeat on ultrasound
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-Day 24-25 becomes visible
-Yolk sac is still larger than developing allantoic cavity --embryo proper is within allantoic cavity |
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28-30 day equine pregnancy
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-Conceptus is size of an orange
-Allantoic cavity is increasing in size -Yolk sac is regressing -Allantoic cavity and yolk sac are the same size |
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40 day equine pregnancy
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-Conceptus is the size of a small grapefruit
-Allantoic cavity takes up all space, yolk sac has regressed |
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Embryo vs. Fetus
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-Embryo is still undergoing organogenesis
-Fetus: organs are all developed, only has to grow in size |
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Transabdominal Ultrasound for pregnancy diagnosis in mares
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-can do after 80-100 days
-Fetus has grown so large the uterus hangs over the brim of the pelvis, cannot feel via rectal palpation -Can assess fetal heart rate and fetal activity -Check character of fetal fluids -Placental assessment -Clip entire abdomen for assessment |
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Estrone sulfate assay
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-Use for pregnancy diagnosis in mares
-Will be present in blood between 60 and 90 days -Present in urine at more than 150 days -Correlates with fetal viability -Decreases if the fetus dies |
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Equine Chorionic Gonadotropin
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-Can be used for pregnancy detection in mares
-Does NOT correlate to fetal viability --still produced if the fetus dies, is produced as long as endometrial cups are present -Released from endometrial cups between 40 and 120 days of pregnancy -Indicates presence of endometrial cups, produced by endometrial cups -has LH like activity, allows secondary CL to form and produce progesterone |
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Routine pregnancy diagnosis in Mares
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-12-18 days: can be re-bred if open
-20-22 days: any estrus pregnant mare -25-30 days: second ultrasound for twins -42-60 days: monitor normal fetal progression -Fall exam: sort pregnant mares from non-pregnant |
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Diagnosing Barren Mares
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-Consider stallion, mare, and management
-Breeding Soundness Exam -Examine breeding records and tease records -Evaluate perineal conformation -Look at ovaries and compare with stage of life -Look for uterine fluid, cysts, and uterine tone -Manual and visual vaginal exam |
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Progesterone in Mares
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-Progesterone is produced by CL
--primary CL after ovulation --secondary CL due to equine chorionic gonadotropin -Ovaries are inactive after 180 days -Placenta produces progestogens after 60 days of pregnancy --same activity as progesterone -Can give mares exogenous progestogens during pregnancy to maintain pregnancy |
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Progesterone Therapy in Mares
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-Give pregnant mares progestogens during pregnancy
-Endogenous progesterone is normally low after 150 days -Can remove ovaries after 100 days --due to endotoxemia, colic stress, surgery stress, incompetent cervix, periglandular fibrosis |
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Types of Progesterone Therapy
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-Progesterone in oil daily
-Regumate, long-acting oral altrenogest -BioRelease P4 -Bovine and human implants are not effective in horses |
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Equine Twins
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-Results in placental insufficiency
-Large avillous area between adjacent chorions prevents either fetus from getting enough nutrients -Usually 1 fetus dies in-upter0, other is aborted later in pregnancy |
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Double Ovulation in Mares
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-Based on age, nutrition, breed, and reproductive status
-Synchronous: embryos are equal in size -Asynchronous: embryos are unequal in size, older embryo is larger |
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Bilateral Fixation
Unilateral Fixation |
-Bilateral: One twin embryo lodges at the base of each uterine horn
-Unilateral: Both embryos are in the base of one uterine horn |
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Ultrasound exam for detection of Twins in horses
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-Day 11-12: embryonic vesicle is difficult to rupture, turgid and small
--2nd embryo of synchronous ovulation may be too small to image -Day 13-15: embryos are mobile and easy to separate --both embryos of asynchronous ovulations should be large enough to image -Day 17-19: Bilateral twins are easy to rupture --unilateral twins are difficult to separate and rupture -Non-pregnant mare can be re-bred -Problem mare can be treated -Day 21-25: embryos can be differentiated from cysts --25 day embryo has heartbeat --bilateral twins are easy to reduce, unilateral twins are difficult --Non-pregnant mare has just ovulated -more than 30 days: manual reduction --administer PGF2a --can also not intervene, most mares will spontaneously get rid of one of the embryos, if mare is a pony! |
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Procedure for Equine Pregnancy Diagnosis
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-Ultrasound at 17-23 days AND 28-30 days
-If no money and can only ultrasound once, do after 25 days -Results are not guaranteed! -Assure vesicle is appropriate size for age -Consider reduction or termination if twins are less than 35 days |
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Administering PGF2a to Mares to reduce twins
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-Causes luteolysis
-Terminates pregnancy -Can breed mare again at next onset of estrus -Mares that double ovulate will likely double ovulate again |
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Manual reduction of twins in mares
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-“Crushing”
-Can do if more than 30 days gestation -90% success in yielding one live foal |
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No intervention of twins in mares
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-according to one study, 64% of day 16 twins will undergo spontaneous reduction before 40 days
-Does not happen in healthy horses |
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Reduction of horse twins at 30-60 days
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-Transvaginal aspiration
-Low foaling rates for remaining twin -Avoid administering PGF2a, emdometrial cups will stick around and will prevent mare from going into estrus until after 120 days |
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Preparing a mare for transvaginal aspiration
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-Flunixin meglumine (banamine)
--1.1 mg/kg IV -Trimethoprim sulfa --30mg/kg PO, SID -Detomidine HCL (0.01-0.02mg/kg IV) -Butorphanol tartrate (0.01 mg/kg IV) -Antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, and sedation |
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Reduction of horse twins at 70-160 days
|
-Intracardiac injection of KCl
-Can be done transabdominally |
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Preparing a mare for intracardiac injection of KCl
|
-Clenbuteral (1.6 ug/kg PO)
-Flunixin meglumine/banamine (1.1mg/kg IV) -Trimethoprim sulfa (30mg/kg PO) -Detomidine HCl (0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV), Progesterone (150mg IM) -Clip abdomen, surgically scrub injection site -Select the smaller, less vigorous fetus -Use 18-20g 6” spinal needle with 4ml KCl (2mEq/ml) -Will have 40-60% success rate |
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Post-twin reduction check-up
|
-Ultrasound exam day 1-4
-Continue antibiotics for 5 days -Continue progestogens 10-14 days -Periodic re-examinations -If both fetuses due give saline uterine lavage, 20 units oxytocin IV, and discontinue progestogen administration |
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Twin management options
|
-Nothing
-Administer PGF2a -If less than 30 days, manual reduction -40-70 days, transvaginal aspiration -70-160 days, intracardiac KCl |
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Clinical signs of abortion in mares
|
-usually none to very few
-May see early lactation or waxed teats -Mare may go back into heat -May see passage of fetal membranes or vulvar discharge |
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Post-abortion management of mares
|
-Isolating aborting mare
-Remove abortus from environment to prevent possible contamination --worry that abortion is due to a virus, need to make sure not contagious! -Examine mare for retained conceptus --2nd twin -Disinfect stall as much as possible! |
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Uterine swab culture in abortion case
|
-Usually not diagnostic after 48 hours
-Micro-organisms associated with abortion are rapidly cleared from genital tract |
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Always check for a twin!!
|
-Can act like retained fetal membranes
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Retained fetal membranes in mares
|
-May see on ultrasound
-May not be imaged if intimately attached to uterine wall -Give saline uterine lavage --oxytocin --cloprostenol |
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Diagnosis of Abortion in Mares
|
-Submit aborted fetus and fetal membranes to lab
-Do not freeze tissues! Keep cool but do not freeze --can submit a frozen sample, but not ideal -Provide history |
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Fetal necropsy kit
|
-Waterproof, insulated box
-Coolant packs, frozen to less than 20C -Blood tubes -Sterile scalpel and syringes with needles -Microbiology transport culturette -Whirl-pak bags -Screw-top container with 10% buffered formalin -Lab submission forms -Express courier transport forms |
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Evaluation of Fetal Membranes
|
-Look at chorion, allantois, and amnion
-Look at tip of nongravid and gravid horns -Record length of umbilical cord --look for twists -Weight chorioallantois and amnion -Sample normal regions of chorioallantois and amnion -Sample lesions |
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Evaluation of aborted fetus
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-Sex
-Crown to rump length -Hair growth -Meconium -Dissect in right lateral recumbency, reflect limbs, skin, and body wall -Aspirate and sample peritoneal fluid, pericardial fluid, and abdominal fluid --put it red top tube -Aseptically collect spleen, liver, and kidney -Take aerobic culture of lung and stomach contents -Tissues for histology: --kidney, spleen, heart, thymus, lung, liver -Take liver and aqueous eye samples for toxicology |
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Virus isolation in equine abortion case
|
-Look for Equine herpes virus 1, equine arteritis virus
-Do a fluorescent antibody assay --EHV-1 --EAV --leptospira species |
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Serum Antibody Titers
|
-Paired samples at 0 and 2-4 weeks
-Check for EHV-1, EAV, and leptospirosis -4x increase is diagnostic |
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Non-infectious causes of Abortion
|
-Twins
-Umbilical cord torsion -Placental insufficiency -Uterine body pregnancy --results in transverse presentation and dystocia -Developmental issues -Chromosome abnormalities --38% early pregnancy loss in women |
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Infectious causes of Abortion in Mares
|
-EHV-1
-EAV -EIA -Bacterial placentitis -Fungal placentitis -Leptospirosis |
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EHV-1 Rhinopneumonitis
|
-Infectious cause of abortion in mares
-Diagnostic test is available -Vaccines are not 100% effective --Vaccinate at 5, 7, 9 months -Most common cause of viral abortion in horses |
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Equine Viral Arteritis (EAV)
|
-Causes abortion storms in mares
-Virus resides in genital tract -Confirm EAV status before vaccinating -Vaccinated horses should be isolated for 3 weeks --vaccinate before breeding and isolate after breeding -Seronegative mares should be vaccinated if mare is going to be bred to an EAV positive stallion |
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Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA)
|
-Infectious cause of abortion in mares
-Can do Coggin’s test or ELISA to identify carriers -Carriers should be culled! |
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Diffuse placentitis in Mares
|
-Whole placenta is inflamed
-Bacteria is hematogenously spread to placenta -Septicemia, leptospirosis, or other bacterial causes -Amnion is very inflamed |
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Ascending Placentitis
|
-Infection that starts in pelvic canal and advances to cervix, cervical star, and moves inward
-Becomes “Race” between foal maturity and ascending bacteria -Pathogens affect endometrium -Causes premature separation of chorioallantois -Thickened membranes may occur, chorioallantois becomes too thick and does not rupture -Fetus becomes hypoxic, cannot get blood -Need to maintain mare’s body condition -Can do episioplasty |
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Focal Placentitis
|
-Severe inflammatory lesion covered by thick brown exudate
-Results in placental insufficiency and fetus dies -Lesion is at most ventral part of the uterus, at bifurcation of the horns --pasty, tan exudate between horns -Norcardiform placentitis -Crossiella equi and other microorganisms are associated with the lesion -Mare does not need treatment after the abortion |
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Fungal placentitis
|
-Usually an ascending infection
-Most often occurs in late gestation -Causes edema and necrosis of the chorion -Mycotic amnionitis -Will have small emaciated fetus -Premature separation of the chorioallantois is possible |
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Mare Reproductive Loss Syndrome
|
-occurs at 35-100 days, cloudy fetal fluids and fetal expulsion
-3rd trimester abortion -Often will have premature separation of the chorioallantois -Eastern tent caterpillars may be involved |
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Preventing Abortion in Mares
|
-Separate transient mares from permanent/resident mares
-Limit group numbers -Separate maiden mares from multiparous mares -Have new mares undergo 3 week quarantine |
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Prevention of Placentitis in mares
|
-Caslick’s procedure for incompetent caudal genital tract
-Maintain body condition of mares via dental care, anthelmintic program, good quality hay, and increase ration -Vaccinate based on geography --give annual vaccines 4-6 weeks before due date to enhance passive transfer of antibodies |
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Annual vaccinations for breeding mares
|
-Core: |
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Goal of Dairy Production
|
-High quality, safe, affordable milk
-Maximize production -Minimize costs -Profitable enterprise |
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Dairy Industry averages
|
-20,743 pounds of milk per cow
-3.67% fat -3.24% protein -Number of cows is decreasing and the production per cow is increasing |
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Dairy herd health program
|
-Reproductive management
-Nutritional counseling -Cow comfort -Preventative medicine -Udder health management -Husbandry -Dairy advisory team |
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Ideal dairy cow
|
-Born without problems
-Good genetic potential -Optimal growth rate -Puberty onset at 8-9 months -Conceive at 15 months -Calve at 24 months and every 12-13 months afterwards -Maximal production -Stays in herd for at least 3 lactations |
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Lactation curve
|
-Amount of milk produced drops off throughout lactation cycle
-Early in lactation cycle will result in profit -Middle of cycle is break-even -Loss occurs during end of the lactation and during the dry period |
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Goals of Dairy Reproductive Health Programs
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-Improve reproductive efficiency
-Minimize reproduction and health related loss |
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Economic impact of reproductive health program in Dairy
|
-Increase production by maintaining short calving interval
--More milk produced by fewer cows --More calves/heifers/cows for sale -Reduce the number of non-productive days -Reduce costs of reproductive diseases -Reduce costs from culling |
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Factors influencing reproductive efficiency of Dairy Cows
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-Calving interval
--heat detection rate for 1st service has greatest impact on calving interval -Days open -Pregnancy rate -Culling -Replacement heifers --age at first calving must be 24 months or less -Genetic quality |
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Calving Interval goal
|
-12-13 months
-Cow should resume cycling by 4 weeks post-partum -Want cow to enter breeding herd by 45 days post-partum -Cow should conceive by 70-80 days post partum -Short calving interval is a goal but not a good monitoring parameter --bias: excludes culled cows, 1st calf heifers, non-bred cows --lag: takes an entire pregnancy length before calving interval is established --momentum: requires 2 consecutive calving dates for calculation |
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Benefits of a short calving interval
|
-Maximizes the number of lactations in a cow’s lifetime
-Maximizes the time spent in early lactation -Maximizes number of cows produced -Reduces amount of culling |
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Pregnancy rate on Dairy herds
|
-Percent of cows getting pregnant within a 21 day interval
-Goal is 35% -Pregnancy rate = heat detection rate * conception rate --Conception rate is typically less than 50% --Heat detection rate needs to be more than 70%! -National average: 14-22% |
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BCS1 in dairy cow
|
-Very poor body condition
-Deep cavity under tail and around tail head -Skin is drawn tight over the pelvis, no tissue detectable between -No fatty tissue felt on the loin -Pins, hooks, and short ribs can be seen --edges feel sharp -Animal appears emaciated! |
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BCS2 in dairy cow
|
-Poor body condition
-Cavity is clear around the tail head, but less prominent -No fatty tissue felt between skin and pelvis -Skin is supple -Ends of short ribs are sharp to the touch, individual ribs cannot be seen -Bones are less prominent but still angular and can be distinguished by touch |
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BCS3 in dairy cow
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-Good body condition
-Slight cavity lined with fatty tissue is apparent at the tailhead -Area between the pins is smoothed out -Ends of short ribs can be felt with moderate pressure -Slight depression visible in loin area -Hooks and pins can be felt but have some covering of flesh -Hook, pin, and back bones have lost angularity and appear smooth |
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BCS4 in dairy cow
|
-Fat
-Depression between pins and tail head is filling in -Patches of fat are apparent under the skin -Pelvis can only be felt with firm pressure -Short ribs cannot be felt, even with firm pressure -No depression is visible in the loin between the backbone and hip bones -Back and area between hooks and pins appear flat |
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BCS5 in dairy cow
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-Grossly fat
-Tail head is buried in fatty tissue -Area between the pins and tailbone is rounded, skin is distended -No part of the pelvis can be felt, even with firm pressure -Folds of fatty tissue over the short ribs -Bony structure cannot be felt -Hooks, pins, and backbone almost appear |
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Effect of parity on energy balance in dairy cows
|
-Primiparous cows are in negative energy balance 10-12 weeks into lactation
-Multiparous cows are in negative energy balance from week 2-6, positive energy balance after week 6 -Milk yield is greater than energy intake |
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Pregnancy rates in Dairy cows
|
-Really 16-20%
-greater than 20% is very good -Less than 15% needs improvement |
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Culling of dairy cows
|
-Culling is ideally based on population
-Culling for reproductive failure is expensive! |
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Culling rate in dairy herds
|
-want to cull 25-35% of the herd per year
-Infertility should be cause of culling in less than 40% of all culls -Want to minimize unvoluntary culls -Most cows are culled in the first 20 days after calving |
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Mastitis in cows
|
-Impairs reproductive function
--releases endotoxins and prostaglandins |
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Replacement Heifers
|
-Conceive at 15 months of age
-Breed by AI, can select sire for calving ease -Calve at 24 months of age, 85% mature weight --BCS 3.75 -Optimal growth rate |
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Elements of a reproductive management program in dairy cows
|
-Collect information on reproductive performance
-Monitor status and trends -Compare to pre-set goals -Identify programs -Design interventions |
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Components of a reproductive herd health program
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-Record system:
--selection list --palpation findings --BCS --reports -Most farms used DairyComp 305 -Reproductive records --Cow ID --Date fresh and any complications --date bred, service #, bull ID --Date confirmed pregnant --BCS --Palpation findings in cervix, uterus, ovaries --Diagnosis and any treatments needed |
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Selecting cows to be examined
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-Pregnancy diagnosis: do more than 35 days after breeding
-Cow has not been seen in heat by 60 days post-partum -Repeat breeders, has gone through more than 3 breedings without becoming pregnant -Abnormal post-partum period --retained placenta, endometritis, cysts -Heifers --growth rate, pre-breeding exam -Requested by herd manager for whatever reason --return to estrus, discharge, abortion -Calves that calved recently without any problems do not need to be examined -Fresh cows in first 10 days post-partum should have body temp monitored --elevated temp for more than 2 days in a row should get treatment! --more than 103.5 F |
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Post-partum involution of the bovine uterus
|
-Involution occurs rapidly in first 5-15 days
-Not close to involuted until day 20-25 -Full involution around day 45-50 |
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Record system for Bovine Palpation
|
-Dairy Comp 305
-PC Dart -Vet exams give info about: --status of cow and herd --action lists --Analysis of performance --Diagnostic analysis -Reports summarize findings from each visit --compare performance indices and targets --identify problems |
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Dairy record system annual report
|
-Summarizes data, graphs, trends over time
-Compare performance indices to targets -Identify problems -Long-term action plan -Re-evaluate goals -Evaluate progress to date |
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Factors influencing reproductive efficiency in dairy herd
|
-Calving interval
-Days open -Pregnancy rate -Culling -replacement Heifers -Genetic quality |
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Days open in dairy cows
|
-Calving to conception interval
-Target is 80-90 days -85% of cows should be pregnant by 115 days in milk -Less retrospective parameter than calving interval -Biased by exclusion of repeat breeders and culls -Determined by: --voluntary wait period and ½ estrus cycle past wait period --estrus detection rate --conception rate -Estrus detection is best way to increase efficiency |
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Days open in dairy cows and potential revenue loss
|
-$2-3 loss per day for every cow that is open past voluntary wait period
-SIGNIFICANT losses! -As calving interval gets longer, money is lost |
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Pregnancy rate in dairy herd
|
-Goal is 35%
-pregnancy rate = heat detection rate * conception rate -Easy to monitor -Includes key components of management performance -Want to increase heat detection rate! |
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Best way to reduce days open in dairy cows
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-Heat detection rate!!!
-Voluntary wait period and conception rate play a factor, but heat detection rate is main method, has greatest impact on calving interval |
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Factors influencing estrus expression in dairy cows
|
-Milk production
--high milk production, focus is on producing milk, not reproduction -Body condition -Temperature and humidity -Footing -Time of day -Crowding -Number of cows in heat at the same time -Other activities |
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Signs of estrus in dairy cows
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-Increased activity
-Cohesive strands of Mucus discharge from vulva -Off-feed or slight anorexia -Mounts other cows -*Stands to be mounted* --standing heat is best heat detection method! |
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Heat Detection methods
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-3 times per day for 20 minutes |
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Goals for cows pregnant at pregnancy diagnosis
|
-target is more than 60% at 35-40 days post-breeding
--More than 70% after 42-45 days post-breeding -Only cows not seen in heat are presented for pregnancy diagnosis -Measure of heat detection efficiency -based on palpation pregnancy rate, need to be a good palpator! |
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Interestrous interval in dairy cows
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-Less than 18 days: short, abnormal cycle
-18-24 days: normal cycle -24-35 days: long, abnormal cycle -36-48 days: normal double cycle interval -More than 48 days: long, abnormal cycle |
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Conception rate in dairy cows
|
-Goal is 50% for 1st service
-Depends on cow factors, bull factors, human factors -Non-return to estrous rate is usually greater than conception rate |
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Services per conception in dairy cows
|
-Target is less than 1.7 for cows that conceive
-1.7-2.2 for all cows |
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Expenses per cow per year in dairy cows
|
-Feed: $874
-Labor: $510 -Veterinary costs and breeding: $142 |
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Management Aids for dairy cow conception
|
-Estrus synchronization
-Timed AI -Bovine somatotropin -Early pregnancy diagnosis |
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Estrus synchronization in dairy cows
|
-Can focus effort for heat detection on specific days
-More cows in heat at the same time --better expression of estrus behavior -High potential return, improves heat detection for 1st service -Synchronized pregnancy exams |
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PGF2a synchronization programs
|
-2 injections of PGF2a 11 days apart
-2 injections of PGF2a 14 days apart --AI after heat detection --timed AI 72 and 96 hours post injection -PGF2a causes luteolysis and CL rupture -Mostly used for heifer operations, heifers express strong estrus |
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OvSynch program
|
-Uses GnRH and PGF2a
-Allows for timed AI in lactating cows -Comparable pregnancy rates to AI after heat detection -Does not work well in heifers -Removes the need for heat detection -All eligible cows will be bred at a pre-determined time -Can induce cyclicity in anestrous cows -Can extend voluntary wait period -No need for heat detection for 1st service -Good for cows, not for heifers -Does NOT eliminate heat detection for subsequent cycles |
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OvSynch steps
|
1. GnRH IM
2. Wait 7 days 3. Lutalyse IM 4. Wait 56 hours 5. GnRH IM 6. Wait 16 hours 7. Breed |
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Variations of the OvSynch program
|
-pre-Synch: give PGF2a 2 weeks before OvSynch
-Co-Synch: similar to OvSynch, but 2nd GnRH injection and breeding are combined -Select Synch: used to synchronize estrus, not ovulation |
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Ideal Synchronization program in dairy cows
|
-Pre-synch: 2 shots of PGF2a 2 weeks apart
-OvSynch |
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Estrus Synchronization in Heifers
|
-Feed MGAs followed by Lutalyse
-CIRD and removal |
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Controlled Internal Drug Release (CIDR)
|
-Progesterone-impregnated plastic device inserted vaginally
-Insert and leave for 7 days -- give PGF2a on day 6 -Remove on day 7 -73% of heifers will be in heat by 46 hours -Approved for use in heifers and cows |
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Early pregnancy Diagnosis in Dairy Cows
|
-Early conception is a factor
-Surbred: blood test for pregnancy specific protein at day 18 after breeding -BioPryn test on blood, looks for pregnancy-specific protein B -Milk progesterone test 21 days after breeding -Ultrasound examination around day 22-24 after breeding |
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BioPRYN test
|
-Test for presence of pregnancy-specific protein B
-ELISA test -Blood test |
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Pregnancy-specific protein B
|
-Produced by developing placenta of cows |
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Physiological limitations to sow litter size
|
-Parity: P2 id the lowest performance parity
--sows are still gorwing --Litter size increases beyond P2, uterus gets larger and is able to accommodate more piglets --After P6, number of live piglets decreases -Ovulation and litter size -Sow age -breed -Normal embryonic loss --uterine size limits the number of developing embryps --up to 40% normal loss in the first 25 days of pregnancy -Puberty -Length of lactation --litter size is decreased if piglets are weaned before 13-16 days, due to insufficient uterine involution |
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Normal abortion rate in pigs
|
-0.5-1% non-infectious
--May increase in fall and winter, slightly seasonal |
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Infectious abortion in Pigs
|
-History:
--herd management (vaccination protocols, isolation) --clinical signs (off feed, fever, weak pigs) --Parity of aborting animals --stage of gestation --new animals -Do a walk-through and get specimens --fetal membrane or fetal tissues --paired serum titers |
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Viral causes of abortion in pigs
|
-Parvovirus (SMEDI)
-Pseudorabies (Aujeszky’s disease) -Swine influenza -Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) --current cause of major reproductive problems |
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Bacterial causes of abortion in pigs
|
-Leptospirosis
-Brucellosis --Regulatory disease in USA |
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Diseases identified in boar semen
|
-Aujeszky’s disease (pseudorabies)
-Brucellosis -Chlamydophilosis -PCV2 -Classical swine fever -FMD -Japanese Encephalitis -Leptospirosis -Parvovirus -PRRS -Rubulavirus -Vesicular Disease |
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Diseases in boar semen that have been transmitted by AI
|
-PCV2
-Classical Swine Fever -Parvovirus -PRRS |
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Brucellosis in Pigs
|
-Brucella suis
-Found in many parts of the world -Infects genital organs of the boar -Diagnose in serology and tissues -Zoonotic |
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Leptospirosis in Pigs
|
-Leptospira interrogans (multiple serovars)
-Ubiquitous worldwide -Zoonotic, animals to humans and animals to animals -Can localize in a boar urogenital tract and boar will become a chronic shedder -Prevention via testing and vaccination is best approach -Antimicrobial treatment can be effective |
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Chlamydophilosis
|
-Chlamidphila spp.
-Global distribution --up to 80% seroconversion in China -Can cause disturbances to urogenital system --salpingitis, placentitis that leads to abortion -Zoonotic, effects many species -Prevent using disinfectants and antimicrobial treatment -No vaccine available |
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PRRS
|
-Arterivirus
-Primary cause of reproductive failure in swine -Can be transmitted through infected semen --leucospermia -Need to screen boar semen donors daily |
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PRRS sampling techniques
|
-Blood or serum
-Oral fluds -Semen |
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Serologic tests for PRRS
|
-Variety of tests helps identify when infection occurs
-Early, middle, and late stages |
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Porcine Circovirus type 2 (PCV2)
|
-Post-weaning multi-systemic wasting disease
-Transmitted via semen -Porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome -Circovirus -Found worldwide -has been found in boar semen -Can cause reproductive failure via AI -Vaccination is important for control -Can diagnose with serology and tissues |
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Reasons for vaccine failure in pigs
|
-timing of vaccine is done for convenience, not for efficacy
-Maternal antibody interference -Reduced dose, especially with killed vaccines -1 dose instead of 2, or recommended dose -Improper vaccination method or improper vaccine site -Poor vaccine handling -Health of vaccinated animals |
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Porcine Parvovirus
|
-Highly stable, ubiquitous virus
-Oronasal or intrauterine transmission -Can colonize boar genital tract -Effective vaccines are available |
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Aujeszky’s disease/Pseudorabies
|
-Herpesvirus
-Epithelial tropism -Occurs in several areas of the world, within feral herd population -Viral replication and shedding occurs in boar genital tract -Leucospermia -Serological screening, can look at tissues for diagnosis |
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Classical Swine Fever/Hoc Cholera
|
-Pestivirus
--BVD, border disease -Highly contagious -Regional disease, mostly in Russia -viral replication/shedding in boar genital tract -Leucospermia -Serological screening and tissues for diagnosis |
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FMD in swine
|
-Picornavirus
-Highly contagious -Affects multiple species -Found in all excretions and secretions -Serology and tissues used for diagnosis |
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Swine Vesicular Disease
|
-Enterovirus (Picornavirus)
-Contagious, spread through secretions -Regional disease, mostly in Europe and Asia -Diagnose via serology and tissues |
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Normal events causing vulvar discharge in sows
|
-Estrus discharge
-Post-breeding -Post-farrowing discharge --lochia -Cervical/seminal plug |
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Pathologic vulvar discharge in sows
|
-Endometritis
-Metritis -Cervicitis -Vaginitis -Vulvar abscess or laceration -Blood -Urinary tract issue -Intervene if more than 5-10% of breeding group shows clinical signs |
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Viral causes of vulvar discharge in sows
|
-Will see other clinical signs besides just discharge
--abortion --Pre-weaning mortality --mummies --stillbirths --other issues |
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Bacterial causes of vulvar discharge in sows
|
-E. coli
-Proteus -Staph and Strep -Eubacterium suis (cystitis) --boars carry in perputial diverticulum --can be present in housing systems -Any extended boar semen can have bacterial contamination |
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Effects of bacteriospermia
|
-Vulvar discharge
-Decrease in semen quality --directly or indirectly --directly effects sow -Decreased longevity -Decreased herd reproductive performance |
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Sources of boar sperm contamination
|
-Mammalian:
--personnel, skin/hair --Fecal --Respiratory secretions --preputial fluids -Non-mammalian: --water (most common) --plant matter --debris from sinks/drains --air/ventilatory issues --inanimate objects |
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Extended Chilled Boar Semen
|
-Increases sperm longevity and shelf-life
--range 1-8 days, average 4-5 days -Also allows any viable bacterial to proliferate -Semen extenders are ideal cell culture media |
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Antimicrobials in Boar sperm
|
-Microbes need to be dividing/replicating to be able to be killed
-Need sufficient amounts of readily available active products -Needs to permeate bacterial cell, either actively or passively -Needs to occupy a sufficient number of sites of action over time to have effect -Allow at least 2 hours after mixing for antimicrobials to work |
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Methods for controlling bacterial contamination in boar sperm
|
-Hygiene
-Sanitation -Water system |
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Interpreting vulvar discharge clinical signs in sows
|
-Timing of cycle and type of discharge is helpful
-UTI: small amount of discharge --discharge is unrelated to estrous cycle -Uterine infection: endometritis --copious discharge --seen within 6 days of estrus --no systemic signs --higher parity sows |
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Vaginitis in sows
|
-Moderate discharge
-Discharge is unrelated to estrous cycle -more common in gilts |
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Diagnosing vaginal discharge in sows
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-Assess effect on herd fertility
--check production records -Examine estrus detection and breeding program --pen mating, hand mating, AI |
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Nutritional causes of reproductive wastage
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-Minerals
--incorrect Ca/P ratio can lead to uterine intertia --Iodine increases stillbirths --Selenium causes MMA, primary uterine inertia --Iron deficiency causes piglet anemia and stillbirths -Feeding pattern in early breeding is important |
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Zeralenone and reproductive wastage in pigs
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-Fusarium roseum |
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Trichothecene toxin and reproductive wastage in pigs
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-T2 toxin is toxic if more than 2ppm
-Ochratoxin A is toxic if more than 0.05ppm -toxic for embryo and fetus -Usually see toxic signs in dam also -Inhibits ovaries, causes atrophy -Suppresses immune system -Damages gut and kidneys |
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Vomitoxin and reproductive wastage in pigs
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-Deoxynivalenol
-Toxic at more than 1ppm -Causes vomiting and refusal of feed -Suppresses immune system -Kidney damage -Disrupts oocyte and embryonic development -Disrupts spermatogenesis, arrests cells in G0/G1 |
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Ergot and reproductive wastage in pigs
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-Toxic if more than 1%
-Causes agalactia, gangrene, premature farrowing, mastitis, metritis, lactation failure |
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Aflatoxin and reproductive wastage in pigs
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-Toxic at more than 200 ppb
-Pigs are extremely sensitive -Results in poor pig growth -Impairs immune system -Liver damage -Disrupts spermatogenesis |
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Fumonisin and reproductive wastage in pigs
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-Toxic at more than 10ppm
-Indirectly causes reduction in cardiac output -Directly decreases oxygenation of the placenta -Causes pulmonary edema -Disrupts spermatogenesis |
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Mycotoxins causing reproductive wastage in pigs
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-Fusarium roseum: Deoxynivalenol, zeralenone
--in corn, wheat, barley -Claviceps purpera: ergot --in rye, wheat, triticale oats, barley -Fusarium sporotrichiodes: T-2 toxin --corn, barley, milo, wheat -Fusarium moniliforme: Fumonisin --corn -Aspergillus flavus: aflatoxin: corn |
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Addressing mycotoxins in feed
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-Inorganic binders:
--activated charcoal, zeolites, bentonites, clays -Organic absorbents: --fiber (oat hulls, alfalfa fiber, wheat bran, pectin), yeast cell wall extracts -Denaturants: --live microorganisms, produce mycotoxin-degrading enzymes |
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Feed adulterants causing reproductive wastage in pigs
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-Nitrates-nitrites
-heavy metals -Carbon monoxide (more than 200ppm) --later term abortions, cherry-red tissues -Plants -Mycoplasma -Ureaplasma -Toxoplasma -Eperythrozoonosis |
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Parturition in the Sow
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-Pre-parturient period:
--restlessness, nest-building in last 24 hours --mammary glands become turgid, milk is produced by 6 hours -Intrapartum: --farrow in lateral recumbency --interval between piglets is 10-15 minutes, can be anywhere from 5-45 minutes -Post-partum: --placenta is passed after parturition |
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Induction of parturition in sows
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-Prostaglandins (F2a series)
-10-15mg lutalyse to lyse CL -175ug estrumate IM -Give on day 112-113 to induce farrowing 18-36 hours later -Better response with a split dose than with a single dose |
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Complications associated with sow parturition
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-Pre-partum vaginal prolapse
--replace and suture -Uterine prolapse (intrapartum or post-partum) --laparotomy, amputation, or manual reduction -Lateroflexion of bladder --usually occurs in older sows --catheterize |
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Sow Dystocia Clinical Signs
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-Foul discharge
-Prolonged delay in farrowing -Straining with no piglets being born -Premature cessation of labor -No placenta passed |
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Causes of sow dystocia
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-Uterine inertia: 37%
--primary --secondary, started to have pigs and then stopped -Fetal malposition: 33% -Obstruction of birth canal: 13% -Deviation of the uterus: 10% -Fetopelvic disproportion: 4% -Maternal excitement: 3% |
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Treatment of dystocia due to maternal excitement in sows
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-Acepromazine: 0.1 mg/kg IM
-Separate piglets from gilt until farrowing is done |
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Examination of dystocia in sows
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-Thorough history
-Perform physical exam -Vaginal exam: be clean and lubricate! |
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Medical therapy for dystocia in sows
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-Oxytocin:
--strong ecbolic --20-30 units every 30 minutes for 3 times maximum -Always perform a vaginal exam before re-administering oxytocin -prostaglandins: treatment for primary uterine inertia -Ca: Cal-Dextro --warm solution to body temperature --give 50-125 ml IV, IM, SQ, IP, monitor while administering --Do not give more than 25-30 ml per injection site |
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C-section for sow dystocia
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-Early intervention has better prognosis
-Anesthesia and surgical preparation are key -Surgical technique: --horizonal incision above mammary glands --ventral midline incision --flank incision -Supportive therapy and post-operative care is key |
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Heat stress and boar reproduction
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-temperatures more than 80F or 26.6C will cause reproductive stress in boars |
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Controlling heat stress in boars
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-Shade: |
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Ideal reproductive stats of beef cows
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-Each cow should wean 1 calf per year
-All cows should be bred in late spring/early summer during a narrow window of time -All cows should calve in early spring the next year during a narrow window of time -Uniform calf crop, similar age and size for all calves -All calves weaned at the same time |
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Overview of Beef reproduction
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-Beef is a “renewable resource”
-Small family farms and large commercial operations -75% of been in PA are on smaller family farms |
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Production operations of beef
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-Cow-calf operations
-Seed stock (purebred) -Feedlots and calf-rearing units -Combinations -Cow-calf and feedlots are usually separate -Bos Taurus are most common breeds in US -Bos indicus breeds and crosses are more common in colder climates -Average herd lifespan of a cow is 3-5 years |
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Economic considerations for Beef production
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-Larger farms are more likely to benefit from management improvements
-Product: total weaned weight of the calves -Pregnancy rate and calf survival determine production success --want high pregnancy rates --calf survival is important |
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Production foals for beef farms
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-One calf weaned per cow per year
-Target is 85% of calf crop -Maximize the pounds of beef per cow per year -If cow does not get pregnant, she is culled |
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Calf crop
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-Number of calves weaned/number of exposed females
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Sources for loss on beef operations
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-Low calf crop
--non-pregnant cows --prepartum death --postpartum death of calves -Low weaning weight --pre-weaning growth is based in dam’s milk production, stress, illness, poor pasture -Long breeding season --calves will not be uniform size or uniform age --less efficient |
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Average weaning weight
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-Total weight of weaned calves/total number of calves weaned
-Weaning weight informs income source |
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Components of a management program in beef operations
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-Computerization
-Record keeping -Vaccination programs -Planned vet visits -Calf health -Nutrition -Sire selection -Reproduction |
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Reproductive management goals in a beef operation
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-Uniform calf crop weaned at 6-8 months
-Synchronized weaning -Tight breeding season and calving season --limited breeding season results in a limited calving season --take advantage of early lush pasture to support calf growth --efficient use of labor and facilities -12 month calving interval |
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12 month calving interval on beef operations
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-All females should calve in late winter/early spring
--take advantage of early lush pasture for cows and calves -With 280 day gestation, have 85 day period for cows to get pregnant again --50-60 day lactational anestrus period due to physical presence of mouth on teat --only 20-35 days to get cows pregnant --1-1.5 estrous cycles -Uterine involution is quick, can be 20 days |
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Annual herd health cycle in beef
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-Spring pre-breeding and breeding
-Fall pregnancy diagnosis and weaning -Winter feeding and management -late winter/early spring precalving and calving |
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Bull considerations for beef reproduction
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-Bulls should be examined before the breeding season
-need to obtain sufficient number of bulls to maintain the male:female ratio -Calving ease is important -Scrotal circumference and sperm movement on slide count as MINIMUM BSE --should really do more |
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Bull:cow ratio on beef operation
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-Yearling bull: 15-20 cows
-2 year old bull: 20-30 cows -1 year old bull: 30 cows -3+ year old bull: 30-60 cows -Assumes a 60 day breeding season -Cow numbers can be increased by 30% if cattle are in confined area or presented to bull only when in heat |
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Cow considerations for reproduction on beef operation
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-63 day breeding season is the target
-70% per cycle pregnancy rate -95% of cows pregnant at the end of the breeding season -really want a narrow breeding season -Want 90% of cows to be cycling in the first 21 days of breeding season --want cows to conceive as early as possible in breeding season |
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Postpartum anestrus in beef cows
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-45 days before cow can conceive after parturition
-Due to suckling of calf -Want to minimize --Shang treatment (results in a lot of crying!) --early weaning --CIDRs |
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CIDRs and minimizing postpartum anestrus in beef cows
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-Place CIDR on day 0
-On day 6 give PGF2-a and remove CIDR -Give estradiol on day 7 -From day 8 and onwards, inseminate at observed estrus -Removal of progesterone “jumpstarts” cycle |
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Beef operation 1st service conception rate
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-target is 70%
-Affected by bull factors (BSE) and cow factors (young cows vs. old cows) |
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95% conception rate in beef operations
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-want 63% of cows to be pregnant by 21 days into the breeding season
--90% cycling * 70% conception rate on 1st cycle -want 86% to be pregnant by 42 days -Want 95% to be pregnant by 63 days |
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1st bred Calf heifers
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-Breed heifers at 13-15 months
-Should be 65% of mature weight by 13-15 months -Want heifer to calve at 24 months -Heifer calves must be born early to be ready to breed by following spring -1st calf heifers need 20 extra days post-partum --results in 80-100 day post-partum period -Need to start breeding HEIFERS 1 month before cows |
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Estrus synchronization in beef cows
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-Simplifies estrus detection
-Results in synchronized breeding -Does not increase fertility, just makes it easier |
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OvSynch in beef
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-day 1: GnRH
-day 8: Prostaglandin -day 10.5: GnRH -Breed 16 hours later -By day we should have ovulation -40% pregnancy rate per cycle -not effective for heifers, and less effective if animals is anestrous |
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Progestins in beef
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-Melengestrol acetate (MGA)
-Controlled internal Drug Releasing (CIDR) |
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Using a CIDR in beef cattle
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-Day 0: insert CIRD
-Day 6-7: PGF2-a -Day 7: remove CIDR -Day 8-11: heat detect and breed cow -Pregnancy rate is 26-49% per cycle |
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Advantages of AI in beef
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-Not done as much in beef cattle as it is in dairy
-Can get genetic improvement -Eliminates spread of venereal disease -Do not need to keep a bull on premises --bulls are dangerous! |
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Disadvantages of AI in beef
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-Increased labor and expense
-need technical help -Facilities are needed -Requires heat detection -Requires handling animals -Pregnancy rates are not as high as natural cover with a fertile bull |
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Assisted Reproductive techniques in Beef
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-Good for purebred cattle
-Can improve genetics -Embryo transfer is possible -In Vitro fertilization -Cloning -Sexed embryos -Sexed semen |
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Pregnancy diagnosis in beef cattle-
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Pregnancy exam 8 and 10 weeks after bull removal
--check to see of cow is pregnant or open --want to know stage of gestation -Deworm and vaccinate at the same time -Assess reproductive efficiency -At 21 days, should have more than 65% pregnancy rate --if 55-60%, monitor herd --if less than 50%, need t do something -At 60 days, should have 95% pregnancy rate --if 90-95%, monitor herd --if less than 90%, need to do something |
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Pregnancy diagnosis in Beef cattle via palpation
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-Membrane slip: 30 days
-Amnion/vesicle: 35-60 days -Placentomes: 75 days -Fetus: 60 days -NOT middle uterine artery!! |
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Weaning in beef cattle
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-Should occur in a tight window
-All calves should be 6-8 months of age -Early born heifers will be more mature as replacement heifers, if needed -Fall weaning or early weaning -Pre-conditioning: --castrate, dehorn, deworm, vaccinate, introduce to feed and water -Want calves to be more than 200 days old at weaning --if 190-200 days, need to monitor |
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Weaning percent in beef cows
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-Number of calves waned/number of exposed females = weaning %
-Want weaning % to be more than 90% --monitor herd if 85-90% --take action if less than 85% |
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Calf average daily gain
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-Cow mother: more than 2.25lbs per day
--if less than 2lbs per day, need to take action -Heifer mother: more than 2 lbs per day --if less than 1.75lbs per day, need to take action -Better mothering ability leads to increased growth rates and increased weaning rates |
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Trichomoniasis
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-Protozoa
-Tritrichomonas foetus -Venereal transmission -Older bulls are carriers --lives in inter-cotyledonary space -Causes pyometra, abortion, infertility -Results in reduced pregnancy rates and variation in gestational age -Decreases fertility rate!! -Infection in cows can last several months, but cow can self-cure over time -Tx: stop natural breedings with all affected animals --test bulls and find out which one is infected |
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Diagnosing Trichomoniasis
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-Culture smegma of suspect bulls |
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Trichomoniasis control
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-Sexual rest for females
--rest at least 3 cycles -Breed females to uninfected bulls -Quarrantine exposed females -AI -Use young bulls -Vaccinate with trichoguard |
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Treating bulls with Trichomoniasis
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-Only done if the bull is valuable
-Have local and systemic trichomonicide -Treatment is not usually effective, especially with older bulls |
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Campylobacteriosis (Vibrio)
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-Campylobacter fetus var. venerealis
-Gram- bacterial infection -Venereal transmission from bulls to cows -Bulls are asymptomatic carriers -Can survive for months in the female reproductive tract -Clinical signs: abortions and infertility in cows --causes reduced numbers of offspring |
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Campylobacter diagnosis in cattle
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-Clinical signs
-Culture smegma of carrier bulls -Put into Clark’s medium -Look for immunofluorescence of smegma, vaginal mucus, or aborted tissues -Can also do vaginal mucus antibody agglutination test |
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Campylobacter treatment in cattle
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-Cows usually recover with immunity in 4-5 months
-Bulls rarely self-cure -Can try local treatment, but reinfection is common -Vaccination is usually effective, vaccinate! |
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Winter management of beef cows
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-Divide pregnant females and replacement heifers
-Want to maintain nutrition and body condition score --not too thin or too fat --Have regular weigh-ins -Parasite control, vaccinations, and abortion watch are all important -Bull management is important |
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BCS for beef cows
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-Mid-gestation: 4.5-6/9
-Calving: 5-6/9 -Need to maintain BCS during the winter! Winter feeding is critical --need to keep BCS above 5/9 |
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Gestational losses in beef cows
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-Want less than 2% gestational loss
-If loss is more than 3%, need to take action |
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Spring season on beef operation
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-Pre-calving and calving season
-Want live calves that survive until weaning -Need adequate labor and facilities to manage calvings and dystocias -Need to prepare facilities, review records -1st calf heifers are at highest risk |
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Beef calving season
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-Target: 2 month duration
-Want all calvings to occur in late winter/early spring |
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Beef parturition
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-Can occur throughout the day, may be more common at night
-1st calf heifers are at highest risk -The earlier a problem is detected, the better chance of having a live calf -If feed at night, cows are more likely to calve during the day |
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Beef dystocia
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-Maternal-fetal disproportion is related to calf weight
--most common in 1st calf heifers --calf weight is the single most important trait related to dystocia in beef cattle -Be sure heifers are at optimal size and weight at breeding and calving -Take pelvic measurements -Use sires with calving ease -Want less than 5% dystocia in adult cows --if more than 8%, need to change management -Want less than 15% dystocia in heifers --if more than 25%, need to change -Less than 5% perinatal loss |
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Induction of parturition in beef cows
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-30:30 rule |
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